Effects of β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate free acid and cold water immersion on expression of CR3 and MIP-1β following resistance exercise

The inflammatory response to muscle-damaging exercise requires monocyte mobilization and adhesion. Complement receptor type 3 (CR3) and macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1β enables monocyte recruitment, adhesion, and subsequent infiltration into damaged muscle tissue. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of cold water immersion (CWI) and/or β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate free acid (HMB-FA) on CR3 expression and MIP-1β concentration after four sets of up to 10 repetitions of squat, dead lift, and split squat exercises at 70–80% 1-repetition maximum. Thirty-nine resistance-trained men (22.2 ± 2.5 yr) were randomly divided into four groups: 1) placebo (PL), 2) HMB-FA, 3) HMB-FA-CWI, and 4) PL-CWI. The HMB-FA groups ingested 3 g/day, and CWI groups were submersed into 10–12°C water for 10 min after exercise. Blood was sampled at baseline (PRE), immediately post- (IP), 30 min post- (30P), 24 h post- (24P), and 48 h post (48P)-exercise. Circulating MIP-1β was assayed and CR3 expression on CD14+ monocytes was measured by flow cytometry. Without treatment, CR3 expression significantly elevated at 30P compared with other time points ( P = 0.030–0.047). HMB-FA significantly elevated the percentage of monocytes expressing CR3 between IP and 24P ( P = 0.046) and between IP and 48P ( P = 0.046). No time effect was observed for MIP-1β concentration. The recovery modalities showed to attenuate the rise in CR3 following exercise. Additionally, supplementation with HMB-FA significantly elevated the percentage of monocytes expressing CR3 during recovery. Although the time course that inflammatory responses are most beneficial remains to be determined, recovery modalities may alter immune cell mobilization and adhesion mechanisms during tissue recovery.

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β-Hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB)-free acid attenuates circulating TNF-α and TNFR1 expression postresistance exercise

Journal of Applied Physiology ◽

10.1152/japplphysiol.00738.2013 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 115 (8) ◽

pp. 1173-1182 ◽

Cited By ~ 35

Author(s):

Jeremy R. Townsend ◽

Maren S. Fragala ◽

Adam R. Jajtner ◽

Adam M. Gonzalez ◽

Adam J. Wells ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Recovery Time ◽

Cold Water ◽

Free Acid ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Exercise Bout ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

Intense Exercise ◽

Exercise Protocol ◽

Percent Change ◽

Tnf Α

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate-free acid (HMB-FA) and cold-water immersion (CWI) on circulating concentrations of TNF-α and monocyte TNF-α receptor 1 (TNFR1) expression. Forty resistance-trained men (22.3 ± 2.4 yr) were randomized into four groups [placebo (PL), HMB-FA, CWI, and HMB-FA-CWI] and performed an acute, intense exercise protocol (four sets of up to 10 repetitions of the squat, dead lift, and split squat). Participants also performed four sets of up to 10 repetitions of the squat at 24 and 48 h following the initial exercise bout. Blood was sampled before exercise (PRE), immediately postexercise (IP), and 30 min, 24 h, and 48 h postexercise (30P, 24P, and 48P, respectively). Circulating TNF-α was assayed, and TNFR1 expression on CD14+ monocytes was measured by flow cytometry. The exercise protocol significantly elevated TNF-α in only PL ( P = 0.006) and CWI ( P = 0.045) IP. Mean percent changes show that TNF-α significantly increased from PRE to IP for only PL and CWI groups ( P < 0.05), whereas the percent change of TNF-α for HMB-FA and HMB-FA-CWI was not significant. TNFR1 expression was elevated in PL ( P = 0.023) and CWI ( P = 0.02) at 30P compared with PRE, whereas both HMB-FA-treated groups did not increase significantly. In conclusion, HMB-FA attenuated circulating TNF-α IP and TNFR1 expression during recovery compared with PL and CWI. HMB-FA supplementation may attenuate the initial immune response to intense exercise, which may reduce recovery time following intense exercise.

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Time course of deacclimatization to cold water immersion in Korean women divers

Journal of Applied Physiology ◽

10.1152/jappl.1983.54.6.1708 ◽

1983 ◽

Vol 54 (6) ◽

pp. 1708-1716 ◽

Cited By ~ 24

Author(s):

Y. S. Park ◽

D. W. Rennie ◽

I. S. Lee ◽

Y. D. Park ◽

K. S. Paik ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Longitudinal Study ◽

Time Course ◽

Cold Water ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Subcutaneous Fat ◽

Seasonal Fluctuation ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

Korean Women ◽

Subcutaneous Fat Thickness ◽

Fat Thickness

Seasonal basal metabolic rates (BMR), critical water temperature (Tcw), maximal body insulations (Imax), and finger blood flow during hand immersion in 6 degrees C water (Q finger) were measured periodically during the course of a 3-yr longitudinal study (1980–1982) of modern Korean diving women (ama), who have been wearing wet suits since 1977 to avoid cold stress during work. Methods and protocols were identical to previous studies of cotton-suited ama from 1961–1974. The BMR of modern ama did not undergo seasonal fluctuation (1980–1981) and was within the DuBois standard and comparable to nondivers year around Tcw of ama was still reduced by 2–3 degrees C in 1980 but increased progressively to equal that of nondivers in 1982, when compared at comparable subcutaneous fat thickness (SFT). Since modern ama and nondivers have 2.4 times thicker SFT (i.e., 4–13 mm) than in 1962 the absolute Tcw is significantly reduced. Q finger of ama was also significantly lower than controls in 1980 but in 1981–1982 was identical to controls. Imax of modern ama was identical to controls of comparable SFT in 1980–1982. The time course of cold deacclimatization thus was BMR, 3 yr; Imax, 3 yr; Q finger, 4 yr; and Tcw, 5 yr. This longitudinal study provides further evidence that acclimatization to cold did at one time exist in these diving women.

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The effect of cold-water immersion after eccentric exercise on oxidative and inflammatory responses in skeletal muscle

Medical Journal of Tabriz University of Medical Sciences ◽

10.34172/mj.2021.049 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 43 (2) ◽

pp. 230-239

Author(s):

Tohid Hemmatzade Bedovli ◽

Maryam Nourshahi ◽

Rana Fayaz Milani ◽

Siavash Parvarde

Keyword(s):

Skeletal Muscle ◽

Eccentric Exercise ◽

Inflammatory Responses ◽

Cold Water ◽

Ischemia Reperfusion ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

Repeated Measure ◽

Tnf Α ◽

Normal Water

Background: Oxidative stress and inflammation increase after eccentric exercise. Cold-water immersion after exercise is common among athletes to accelerate recovery. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of cold-water immersion after eccentric exercise on the oxidative and inflammatory responses in skeletal muscle. Methods: One hundred male Wistar rats (weight 285.11 ± 41.65) were randomly divided into control, eccentric exercise, eccentric exercise + normal water, and eccentric exercise + cold water groups. Half, 24, 48, 72, and 168 hours after eccentric exercise, EDL muscle was removed in sterile conditions. The eccentric exercise involves 90 minutes of interval running on the treadmill at a speed of 16 m/min and a -16-degree slope. Muscle reactive oxygen species (ROS) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels were measured by DCFDA and immunohistochemical staining. Kolmogorov-Smirnov for normality test and repeated measure ANOVA and Tukey’s post-Hoc tests for compare groups were used with a significance level of P≤0.05. Results: After eccentric exercise, ROS and TNF-α levels significantly (P<0.05) increased in the three experimental groups. The peak of ROS increase in the eccentric exercise, eccentric exercise + normal water, and eccentric exercise + cold water groups were recorded significantly (P<0.001) half, 48, and 72 hours after eccentric exercise, respectively. Also, the peak of TNF-α increase was significantly higher in the eccentric exercise and eccentric exercise + normal water groups were at 48 hours and in the eccentric exercise + cold water groups was at 72 hours after eccentric exercise (P<0.001). Conclusion: Immersion in cold water causes an increase and delays the peak of ROS and TNF-α after eccentric exercise, which is probably related to ischemia-reperfusion injury. Therefore, after unaccustomed, eccentric, and damaging exercise, immersion in cold water is not recommended.

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Effects of cold water immersion on circulating inflammatory markers at the Kona Ironman World Championship

Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism ◽

10.1139/apnm-2020-0602 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Jenna M Bartley ◽

Rebecca L Stearns ◽

Colleen Munoz ◽

Julie K. Nolan ◽

Shlomit Radom-Aizik ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Muscle Damage ◽

Inflammatory Markers ◽

Immune Cell ◽

Cold Water ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Hematological Parameters ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

World Championship ◽

Leukocyte Counts ◽

Muscle Damage Markers

Cold water immersion (CWI) purportedly reduces inflammation and improves muscle recovery post exercise, yet its effectiveness in specific contexts (ultraendurance) remains unclear. Thus, our aim was to study hematological profiles, systemic inflammation, and muscle damage responses to a specific post race CWI (vs. control) during recovery after the Ironman® World Championship, a culmination of ~100,000 athletes competing in global qualifying Ironman® events each year. Twenty-nine competitors were randomized into CWI or control (CON) group. Physiological parameters and blood samples were taken pre race (BASE), after intervention (POST), and 24 (+1DAY) and 48 hours (+2DAY) following the race. Muscle damage markers (plasma myoglobin, serum creatine kinase) were elevated at POST, +1DAY, and +2DAY, while inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10 and total leukocyte counts were increased only at POST. CWI had no effect on these markers. Numbers of the most abundant circulating cell type, neutrophils, were elevated at POST more so in CWI (p<0.05, vs. CON). Despite that neutrophil counts may be a sensitive marker to detect subtle effects, CWI does not affect recovery markers 24- and 48-hours post race (vs. CON). Overall, we determine that our short CWI protocol was not sufficient to improve recovery. Novelty: • Ironman World Championship event increased circulating muscle damage markers, inflammatory markers, and hematological parameters, including circulating immune cell sub-populations that recover 24-48 hours after the race. • 12-min CWI post ultraendurance event affects the absolute numbers of neutrophils acutely, post race (vs. CON), but does not impact recovery 24- and 48-hours post race.

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Core Temperature Responses to Cold-Water Immersion Recovery: A Pooled-Data Analysis

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance ◽

10.1123/ijspp.2017-0661 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 13 (7) ◽

pp. 917-925 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Jessica M. Stephens ◽

Ken Sharpe ◽

Christopher Gore ◽

Joanna Miller ◽

Gary J. Slater ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Core Temperature ◽

Time Course ◽

Cold Water ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

Careful Consideration ◽

Double Difference ◽

Pooled Data ◽

Core Cooling ◽

Temperature Responses

Purpose: To examine the effect of postexercise cold-water immersion (CWI) protocols, compared with control (CON), on the magnitude and time course of core temperature (Tc) responses. Methods: Pooled-data analyses were used to examine the Tc responses of 157 subjects from previous postexercise CWI trials in the authors’ laboratories. CWI protocols varied with different combinations of temperature, duration, immersion depth, and mode (continuous vs intermittent). Tc was examined as a double difference (ΔΔTc), calculated as the change in Tc in CWI condition minus the corresponding change in CON. The effect of CWI on ΔΔTc was assessed using separate linear mixed models across 2 time components (component 1, immersion; component 2, postintervention). Results: Intermittent CWI resulted in a mean decrease in ΔΔTc that was 0.25°C (0.10°C) (estimate [SE]) greater than continuous CWI during the immersion component (P = .02). There was a significant effect of CWI temperature during the immersion component (P = .05), where reductions in water temperature of 1°C resulted in decreases in ΔΔTc of 0.03°C (0.01°C). Similarly, the effect of CWI duration was significant during the immersion component (P = .01), where every 1 min of immersion resulted in a decrease in ΔΔTc of 0.02°C (0.01°C). The peak difference in Tc between the CWI and CON interventions during the postimmersion component occurred at 60 min postintervention. Conclusions: Variations in CWI mode, duration, and temperature may have a significant effect on the extent of change in Tc. Careful consideration should be given to determine the optimal amount of core cooling before deciding which combination of protocol factors to prescribe.

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Stress-Induced Changes in the Gastrointestinal Motor System

Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology ◽

10.1155/1999/320626 ◽

1999 ◽

Vol 13 (suppl a) ◽

pp. 26A-31A ◽

Cited By ~ 22

Author(s):

Victor Plourde

Keyword(s):

Gastric Emptying ◽

Time Course ◽

Cold Water ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Colonic Motility ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

Colonic Transit ◽

Neural Pathways ◽

Muscle Properties ◽

Gi Motility

Several autonomic, hormonal, behavioural and neuropeptidergic bodily responses to stressful stimuli have been described over the past few decades. Both animal models and human paradigms have been explored. It is acknowledged that stress modulates gastrointestinal (GI) motility through central mechanisms including corticotropin-releasing-factor. This process requires the integrity of autonomic neural pathways. It has become evident that the effects of stress on GI motility vary according to the stressful stimulus, its intensity, the animal species under study and the time course of the study. Recent evidence suggests that chronic or possibly permanent changes develop in enteric smooth muscle properties in response to stress. In animals, the most consistent findings include retardation of gastric emptying in response to various stressors; acceleration of gastric emptying upon cold stress, presumably through the secretion of brain thyroglobulin-hormone; acceleration of intestinal transit; and stimulation of colonic transit and fecal output. In humans, the cold water immersion test has been associated with an inhibition of gastric emptying, while labyrinthine stimulation induces the transition from postprandial to fasting motor patterns in the stomach and the small bowel. Psychological stress has been shown to induce a reduction in the number and amplitude of intestinal migrating motor complexes and to neither affect nor stimulate colonic motility. These various responses to stress are presumably attributed to the preferential activation of specific neuronal pathways under the influence of a given stimulus or its intensity. The significance of these findings and the directions of further studies are discussed.

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Physiological Responses to Cold Water Immersion Following Cycling in the Heat

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance ◽

10.1123/ijspp.3.3.331 ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 3 (3) ◽

pp. 331-346 ◽

Cited By ~ 63

Author(s):

Shona L. Halson ◽

Marc J. Quod ◽

David T. Martin ◽

Andrew S. Gardner ◽

Tammie R. Ebert ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Heart Rate ◽

Inflammatory Responses ◽

Cold Water ◽

Water Immersion ◽

Scientific Information ◽

Venous Blood ◽

Blood Gases ◽

Cold Water Immersion ◽

Blood Samples ◽

Reactive Protein

Cold water immersion (CWI) has become a popular means of enhancing recovery from various forms of exercise. However, there is minimal scientific information on the physiological effects of CWI following cycling in the heat.Purpose:To examine the safety and acute thermoregulatory, cardiovascular, metabolic, endocrine, and inflammatory responses to CWI following cycling in the heat.Methods:Eleven male endurance trained cyclists completed two simulated ~40-min time trials at 34.3 ± 1.1°C. All subjects completed both a CWI trial (11.5°C for 60 s repeated three times) and a control condition (CONT; passive recovery in 24.2 ± 1.8°C) in a randomized cross-over design. Capillary blood samples were assayed for lactate, glucose, pH, and blood gases. Venous blood samples were assayed for catecholamines, cortisol, testosterone, creatine kinase, C-reactive protein, IL-6, and IGF-1 on 7 of the 11 subjects. Heart rate (HR), rectal (Tre), and skin temperatures (Tsk) were measured throughout recovery.Results:CWI elicited a significantly lower HR (CWI: Δ116 ± 9 bpm vs. CONT: Δ106 ± 4 bpm; P = .02), Tre (CWI: Δ1.99 ± 0.50°C vs. CONT: Δ1.49 ± 0.50°C; P = .01) and Tsk. However, all other measures were not significantly different between conditions. All participants subjectively reported enhanced sensations of recovery following CWI.Conclusion:CWI did not result in hypothermia and can be considered safe following high intensity cycling in the heat, using the above protocol. CWI significantly reduced heart rate and core temperature; however, all other metabolic and endocrine markers were not affected by CWI.

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