scholarly journals Phylogenetic Relationship of Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria according to 16S rRNA Genes

2015 ◽  
Vol 2015 ◽  
pp. 1-5 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mohammad Bagher Javadi Nobandegani ◽  
Halimi Mohd Saud ◽  
Wong Mui Yun
Keyword(s):  
16S Rrna ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Phosphorus Uptake ◽  
16S Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria ◽  
Bacterial Isolates ◽  
Serratia Plymuthica ◽  
Phosphate Solubilizing

Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) can convert insoluble form of phosphorous to an available form. Applications of PSB as inoculants increase the phosphorus uptake by plant in the field. In this study, isolation and precise identification of PSB were carried out in Malaysian (Serdang) oil palm field (University Putra Malaysia). Identification and phylogenetic analysis of 8 better isolates were carried out by 16S rRNA gene sequencing in which as a result five isolates belong to the Beta subdivision ofProteobacteria, one isolate was related to the Gama subdivision ofProteobacteria, and two isolates were related to theFirmicutes. Bacterial isolates of 6upmr, 2upmr, 19upmnr, 10upmr, and 24upmr were identified asAlcaligenes faecalis. Also, bacterial isolates of 20upmnr and 17upmnr were identified asBacillus cereusandVagococcus carniphilus, respectively, and bacterial isolates of 31upmr were identified asSerratia plymuthica. Molecular identification and characterization of oil palm strains as the specific phosphate solubilizer can reduce the time and cost of producing effective inoculate (biofertilizer) in an oil palm field.

scholarly journals SKRINING DAN IDENTIFIKASI MIKROBA LIGNINOLITIK PADA PENGOMPOSAN ALAMI TANDAN KOSONG KELAPA SAWIT

2019 ◽  
Vol 6 (1) ◽  
pp. 139
Author(s):  
Bedah Rupaedah ◽  
Devit Purwoko ◽  
Anna Safarrida ◽  
Teuku Tajuddin ◽  
Abdul Wahid ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
16S Rrna ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
16S Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Genes ◽  
Empty Fruit Bunch ◽  
Bacterial Isolates ◽  
Genus Bacillus ◽  
Ligninolytic Activity ◽  
Fungal Isolates ◽  
Natural Decomposition

Screening and Identification of Ligninolytic Microbes in the Natural Decomposition of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch  ABSTRACTOPEFB (oil palm empty fruit bunch)could potentially be utilized as organic fertilizer or animal feed through composting. Information on microorganisms that play important roles in the natural decomposition of OPEFB is to date not much known yet. This research was aimed to obtain and, subsequently, to molecularly identify lignin-degrading microbial isolates responsible for naturally decomposing OPEFB in the Oil Plant Plantation and Palm Oil Refinery Plant, PTPN VIII Cikasungka, Bogor. Screening for active lignin-degrading isolates was carried out on 17 naturally decomposing OPEFB samples. A total of 19 isolates of fungi and 80 isolates of bacteria were obtained. Ligninolytic activity was measured by Sundman and Nase testing methods. Ligninolytic activity was found on 13 fungal isolates and 15 bacterial isolates. The active isolates were subsequently identified molecularly based on ITS sequence in the ribosome DNA area for fungi and in 16S rRNA genes for bacteria. The results showed that the lignin-degrading microorganisms obtained consisted of 5 bacterial isolates from the genus Bacillus and 3 fungal isolates from the genus Rhizopus and Aspergillus. Keywords: composting, lignin, microbes, OPEFB, 16S rRNA ABSTRAKTKKS (tandan kosong kelapa sawit) berpotensi dimanfaatkan sebagai pupuk organik atau pakan ternak dengan cara pengomposan. Informasi mikroba yang berperan dalam pengomposan alami TKKS hingga saat ini belum banyak diketahui. Penelitian ini bertujuan mendapatkan isolat mikroba pendegradasi lignin dalam pengomposan alami TKKS asal Perkebunan dan Pabrik Pemerasan Kelapa Sawit, PTPN VIII Cikasungka, Bogor, serta mengidentifikasi mikroba tersebut secara molekuler. Skrining mikroba aktif pendegradasi lignin dilakukan terhadap 17 sampel TKKS yang sudah lapuk secara alami. Sebanyak 19 isolat jamur dan 80 isolat bakteri telah dihasilkan. Aktivitas ligninolitik diukur dengan metode pengujian Sundman dan Nase. Isolat jamur yang memiliki aktivitas ligninolitik sebanyak 13 isolat, sedangkan bakteri sebanyak 15 isolat. Isolat-isolat aktif tersebut selanjutnya diidentifikasi secara molekuler berdasarkan pada sekuen ITS di daerah DNA ribosom untuk jamur dan menggunakan gen 16S rRNA untuk bakteri. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa 5 isolat bakteri yang memiliki kemampuan mendegradasi lignin berasal dari genus Bacillus, sedangkan 3 isolat jamur pendegradasi lignin berasal dari genus Rhizopus dan Aspergillus Kata Kunci: lignin, mikroba, pengomposan, TKKS, 16S rRNA 

scholarly journals Potential of endophytic bacteria from rice root as potassium solvent

2019 ◽  
Vol 20 (5) ◽  
Author(s):  
WARZATULLISNA WARZATULLISNA ◽  
LENNI FITRI ◽  
YULIA SARI ISMAIL
Keyword(s):  
16S Rrna ◽  
Plant Growth ◽  
Endophytic Bacteria ◽  
Oryza Sativa L ◽  
Rice Root ◽  
16S Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Bacterial Isolates ◽  
Biochemical Tests

Abstract. Warzatullisna, Fitri L, Ismail YS. 2019. Potential of endophytic bacteria from rice root as potassium solvent. Biodiversitas 20: 1303-1308. Endophytic bacteria live in plant tissues and known to have many benefits for plant growth. One function of endophytic bacteria are known to be able to dissolve potassium. Potassium is one of the macronutrients that plays an important role in plant growth and development. This study aims to obtain endophytic bacterial isolates from the roots of rice plants (Oryza sativa L.) which have potential as potassium solvents, identify the endophytic bacteria in morphologically and physiologically, and analysis of the selected isolate 16S rRNA genes. Selected endophytic bacterial isolates from the test of dissolving potassium on medium Alexandrov, measured clear zone using calipers and continued with biochemical tests using KIT DL-96E also identified based on 16S rRNA gene and compared for their close relationship with reference strains available in the Bank Genes. Based on the isolation results, 7 isolates from the roots of rice were obtained. Six isolates of endophytic bacteria were able to dissolve potassium. EPK3 isolates were the isolates that are capable of dissolving the highest potassium in Alexandrov media with a 17.9 mm potassium dissolution index. EPK3 isolates also produce inhibit the growth of Xanthomonas oryzae with a 1.2 mm inhibition zone. Physiological identification showed that EPK3 isolates were Enterobacter cloaceae bacteria with 93.79% of similarity. Based on the 16SrRNA gene showed that EPK3 isolates were closely related to E. cloaceae strain SBP-8 with similarity rate is 99%.

Differentiation Of Clarias Batrachus, C. Gariepinus And Heteropneustes Fossilis By Pcr-Sequencing Of Mitochondrial 16s Rrna Gene

2015 ◽  
Vol 41 (1) ◽  
pp. 51-58
Author(s):  
Mohammad Shamimul Alam ◽  
Hawa Jahan ◽  
Rowshan Ara Begum ◽  
Reza M Shahjahan
Keyword(s):  
16S Rrna ◽  
16S Rrna Gene ◽  
Fish Larva ◽  
16S Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Valuable Insight ◽  
Multiple Sequence ◽  
Pcr Rflp ◽  
Alternative Means

Heteropneustesfossilis, Clariasbatrachus and C. gariepinus are three major catfishes ofecological and economic importance. Identification of these fish species becomes aproblem when the usual external morphological features of the fish are lost or removed,such as in canned fish. Also, newly hatched fish larva is often difficult to identify. PCRsequencingprovides accurate alternative means of identification of individuals at specieslevel. So, 16S rRNA genes of three locally collected catfishes were sequenced after PCRamplification and compared with the same gene sequences available from othergeographical regions. Multiple sequence alignment of the 16S rRNA gene fragments ofthe catfish species has revealed polymorphic sites which can be used to differentiate thesethree species from one another and will provide valuable insight in choosing appropriaterestriction enzymes for PCR-RFLP based identification in future. Asiat. Soc. Bangladesh, Sci. 41(1): 51-58, June 2015

scholarly journals Microdiversity and phylogeographic diversification of bacterioplankton in pelagic freshwater systems revealed through long-read amplicon sequencing

Microbiome ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Yusuke Okazaki ◽  
Shohei Fujinaga ◽  
Michaela M. Salcher ◽  
Cristiana Callieri ◽  
Atsushi Tanaka ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
16S Rrna ◽  
Regional Scale ◽  
Scale Up ◽  
Amplicon Sequencing ◽  
Freshwater Ecosystems ◽  
16S Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Metagenomic Sequencing ◽  
Long Read

Abstract Background Freshwater ecosystems are inhabited by members of cosmopolitan bacterioplankton lineages despite the disconnected nature of these habitats. The lineages are delineated based on > 97% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity, but their intra-lineage microdiversity and phylogeography, which are key to understanding the eco-evolutional processes behind their ubiquity, remain unresolved. Here, we applied long-read amplicon sequencing targeting nearly full-length 16S rRNA genes and the adjacent ribosomal internal transcribed spacer sequences to reveal the intra-lineage diversities of pelagic bacterioplankton assemblages in 11 deep freshwater lakes in Japan and Europe. Results Our single nucleotide-resolved analysis, which was validated using shotgun metagenomic sequencing, uncovered 7–101 amplicon sequence variants for each of the 11 predominant bacterial lineages and demonstrated sympatric, allopatric, and temporal microdiversities that could not be resolved through conventional approaches. Clusters of samples with similar intra-lineage population compositions were identified, which consistently supported genetic isolation between Japan and Europe. At a regional scale (up to hundreds of kilometers), dispersal between lakes was unlikely to be a limiting factor, and environmental factors or genetic drift were potential determinants of population composition. The extent of microdiversification varied among lineages, suggesting that highly diversified lineages (e.g., Iluma-A2 and acI-A1) achieve their ubiquity by containing a consortium of genotypes specific to each habitat, while less diversified lineages (e.g., CL500-11) may be ubiquitous due to a small number of widespread genotypes. The lowest extent of intra-lineage diversification was observed among the dominant hypolimnion-specific lineage (CL500-11), suggesting that their dispersal among lakes is not limited despite the hypolimnion being a more isolated habitat than the epilimnion. Conclusions Our novel approach complemented the limited resolution of short-read amplicon sequencing and limited sensitivity of the metagenome assembly-based approach, and highlighted the complex ecological processes underlying the ubiquity of freshwater bacterioplankton lineages. To fully exploit the performance of the method, its relatively low read throughput is the major bottleneck to be overcome in the future.

scholarly journals Microbiological and Geochemical Heterogeneity in an In Situ Uranium Bioremediation Field Site

2005 ◽  
Vol 71 (10) ◽  
pp. 6308-6318 ◽  
Author(s):  
Helen A. Vrionis ◽  
Robert T. Anderson ◽  
Irene Ortiz-Bernad ◽  
Kathleen R. O'Neill ◽  
Charles T. Resch ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
16S Rrna ◽  
16S Rrna Gene ◽  
16S Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Genes ◽  
Acid Volatile Sulfide ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Gene Sequences ◽  
16S Rrna Gene Sequences ◽  
Geochemical Heterogeneity

ABSTRACT The geochemistry and microbiology of a uranium-contaminated subsurface environment that had undergone two seasons of acetate addition to stimulate microbial U(VI) reduction was examined. There were distinct horizontal and vertical geochemical gradients that could be attributed in large part to the manner in which acetate was distributed in the aquifer, with more reduction of Fe(III) and sulfate occurring at greater depths and closer to the point of acetate injection. Clone libraries of 16S rRNA genes derived from sediments and groundwater indicated an enrichment of sulfate-reducing bacteria in the order Desulfobacterales in sediment and groundwater samples. These samples were collected nearest the injection gallery where microbially reducible Fe(III) oxides were highly depleted, groundwater sulfate concentrations were low, and increases in acid volatile sulfide were observed in the sediment. Further down-gradient, metal-reducing conditions were present as indicated by intermediate Fe(II)/Fe(total) ratios, lower acid volatile sulfide values, and increased abundance of 16S rRNA gene sequences belonging to the dissimilatory Fe(III)- and U(VI)-reducing family Geobacteraceae. Maximal Fe(III) and U(VI) reduction correlated with maximal recovery of Geobacteraceae 16S rRNA gene sequences in both groundwater and sediment; however, the sites at which these maxima occurred were spatially separated within the aquifer. The substantial microbial and geochemical heterogeneity at this site demonstrates that attempts should be made to deliver acetate in a more uniform manner and that closely spaced sampling intervals, horizontally and vertically, in both sediment and groundwater are necessary in order to obtain a more in-depth understanding of microbial processes and the relative contribution of attached and planktonic populations to in situ uranium bioremediation.

scholarly journals Extremely Acidophilic Protists from Acid Mine Drainage Host Rickettsiales-Lineage Endosymbionts That Have Intervening Sequences in Their 16S rRNA Genes

2003 ◽  
Vol 69 (9) ◽  
pp. 5512-5518 ◽  
Author(s):  
Brett J. Baker ◽  
Philip Hugenholtz ◽  
Scott C. Dawson ◽  
Jillian F. Banfield
Keyword(s):  
Acid Mine Drainage ◽  
16S Rrna ◽  
16S Rrna Gene ◽  
Mine Drainage ◽  
Close Association ◽  
Variable Region ◽  
16S Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Acid Mine

ABSTRACT During a molecular phylogenetic survey of extremely acidic (pH < 1), metal-rich acid mine drainage habitats in the Richmond Mine at Iron Mountain, Calif., we detected 16S rRNA gene sequences of a novel bacterial group belonging to the order Rickettsiales in the Alphaproteobacteria. The closest known relatives of this group (92% 16S rRNA gene sequence identity) are endosymbionts of the protist Acanthamoeba. Oligonucleotide 16S rRNA probes were designed and used to observe members of this group within acidophilic protists. To improve visualization of eukaryotic populations in the acid mine drainage samples, broad-specificity probes for eukaryotes were redesigned and combined to highlight this component of the acid mine drainage community. Approximately 4% of protists in the acid mine drainage samples contained endosymbionts. Measurements of internal pH of the protists showed that their cytosol is close to neutral, indicating that the endosymbionts may be neutrophilic. The endosymbionts had a conserved 273-nucleotide intervening sequence (IVS) in variable region V1 of their 16S rRNA genes. The IVS does not match any sequence in current databases, but the predicted secondary structure forms well-defined stem loops. IVSs are uncommon in rRNA genes and appear to be confined to bacteria living in close association with eukaryotes. Based on the phylogenetic novelty of the endosymbiont sequences and initial culture-independent characterization, we propose the name “Candidatus Captivus acidiprotistae.” To our knowledge, this is the first report of an endosymbiotic relationship in an extremely acidic habitat.

scholarly journals Assessment of the Diversity, Abundance, and Ecological Distribution of Members of Candidate Division SR1 Reveals a High Level of Phylogenetic Diversity but Limited Morphotypic Diversity

2009 ◽  
Vol 75 (12) ◽  
pp. 4139-4148 ◽  
Author(s):  
James P. Davis ◽  
Noha H. Youssef ◽  
Mostafa S. Elshahed
Keyword(s):  
16S Rrna ◽  
16S Rrna Gene ◽  
Clone Library ◽  
Phylogenetic Diversity ◽  
16S Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Qpcr Analysis ◽  
Freshwater Pond ◽  
Candidate Division

ABSTRACT We used a combination of 16S rRNA gene clone library surveys, quantitative PCR (qPCR) analysis, and fluorescent in situ hybridization to investigate the diversity, abundance, and distribution of members of candidate division SR1 in multiple habitats. Using SR1-specific 16S rRNA gene primers, we identified multiple novel SR1 lineages in four different anaerobic environments: sediments from Zodletone Spring, a sulfide- and sulfur-rich spring in southwestern Oklahoma; inner layers of microbial mats obtained from Sperm Pool, a high-temperature, low-pH pool (55°C, pH 2.5) in Yellowstone National Park; fresh bovine ruminal contents; and anaerobic freshwater pond sediments (Duck Pond) in Norman, Oklahoma. qPCR analysis indicated that SR1 members constitute a small fraction (<0.01%) of the microbial communities in Duck Pond and ruminal samples but constitute a significant fraction (11.6 and 48.7%) of the total number of bacterial 16S rRNA genes in Zodletone Spring and the inner layers of Sperm Pool microbial mat samples, respectively. By using SR1-specific fluorescent probes, filamentous cells were identified as the sole SR1 morphotype in all environments examined, with the exception of Sperm Pool, where a second bacillus morphotype was also identified. Using a full-cycle 16S rRNA approach, we show that each of these two morphotypes corresponds to a specific phylogenetic lineage identified in the Sperm Pool clone library. This work greatly expands the intralineage phylogenetic diversity within candidate division SR1 and provides valuable quantification and visualization tools that could be used for investigating the ecological roles, dynamics, and genomics of this as-yet-uncultured bacterial phylum.

Clover proliferation phytoplasma: ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma trifolii’

2004 ◽  
Vol 54 (4) ◽  
pp. 1349-1353 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chuji Hiruki ◽  
Keri Wang
Keyword(s):  
16S Rrna ◽  
16S Rrna Gene ◽  
Reference Strain ◽  
16S Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Beet Leafhopper ◽  
Signature Sequences ◽  
Elm Yellows ◽  
The 16S Rrna Gene

Clover proliferation phytoplasma (CPR) is designated as the reference strain for the CP phylogenetic group or subclade, on the basis of molecular analyses of genomic DNA, the 16S rRNA gene and the 16S–23S spacer region. Other strains related to CPR include alfalfa witches'-broom (AWB), brinjal little leaf (BLL), beet leafhopper-transmitted virescence (BLTV), Illinois elm yellows (ILEY), potato witches'-broom (PWB), potato yellows (PY), tomato big bud in California (TBBc) and phytoplasmas from Fragaria multicipita (FM). Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequences of BLL, CPR, FM and ILEY, together with sequences from 16 other phytoplasmas that belong to the ash yellows (AshY), jujube witches'-broom (JWB) and elm yellows (EY) groups that were available in GenBank, produced a tree on which these phytoplasmas clearly clustered as a discrete group. Three subgroups have been classified on the basis of sequence homology and the collective RFLP patterns of amplified 16S rRNA genes. AWB, BLTV, PWB and TBBc are assigned to taxonomic subgroup CP-A, FM belongs to subgroup CP-B and BLL and ILEY are assigned to subgroup CP-C. Genetic heterogeneity between different isolates of AWB, CPR and PWB has been observed from heteroduplex mobility assay analysis of amplified 16S rRNA genes and the 16S–23S spacer region. Two unique signature sequences that can be utilized to distinguish the CP group from others were present. On the basis of unique properties of the DNA from clover proliferation phytoplasma, the name ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma trifolii’ is proposed for the CP group.

scholarly journals Respiration of 13C-Labeled Substrates Added to Soil in the Field and Subsequent 16S rRNA Gene Analysis of 13C-Labeled Soil DNA

2003 ◽  
Vol 69 (3) ◽  
pp. 1614-1622 ◽  
Author(s):  
P. Padmanabhan ◽  
S. Padmanabhan ◽  
C. DeRito ◽  
A. Gray ◽  
D. Gannon ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Organic Matter ◽  
Soil Organic Matter ◽  
16S Rrna ◽  
16S Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Genes ◽  
Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Labeled Compounds ◽  
Field Soil ◽  
Soil Dna

ABSTRACT Our goal was to develop a field soil biodegradation assay using 13C-labeled compounds and identify the active microorganisms by analyzing 16S rRNA genes in soil-derived 13C-labeled DNA. Our biodegradation approach sought to minimize microbiological artifacts caused by physical and/or nutritional disturbance of soil associated with sampling and laboratory incubation. The new field-based assay involved the release of 13C-labeled compounds (glucose, phenol, caffeine, and naphthalene) to soil plots, installation of open-bottom glass chambers that covered the soil, and analysis of samples of headspace gases for 13CO2 respiration by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). We verified that the GC/MS procedure was capable of assessing respiration of the four substrates added (50 ppm) to 5 g of soil in sealed laboratory incubations. Next, we determined background levels of 13CO2 emitted from naturally occurring soil organic matter to chambers inserted into our field soil test plots. We found that the conservative tracer, SF6, that was injected into the headspace rapidly diffused out of the soil chamber and thus would be of little value for computing the efficiency of retaining respired 13CO2. Field respiration assays using all four compounds were completed. Background respiration from soil organic matter interfered with the documentation of in situ respiration of the slowly metabolized (caffeine) and sparingly soluble (naphthalene) compounds. Nonetheless, transient peaks of 13CO2 released in excess of background were found in glucose- and phenol-treated soil within 8 h. Cesium-chloride separation of 13C-labeled soil DNA was followed by PCR amplification and sequencing of 16S rRNA genes from microbial populations involved with 13C-substrate metabolism. A total of 29 full sequences revealed that active populations included relatives of Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Massilia, Flavobacterium, and Pedobacter spp. for glucose; Pseudomonas, Pantoea, Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, Stenotrophomonas, and Alcaligenes spp. for phenol; Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, and Variovorax spp. for naphthalene; and Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, Stenotrophomonas, and Pantoea spp. for caffeine.

scholarly journals Population Dynamics within a Microbial Consortium during Growth on Diesel Fuel in Saline Environments

2006 ◽  
Vol 72 (5) ◽  
pp. 3531-3542 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sabine Kleinsteuber ◽  
Volker Riis ◽  
Ingo Fetzer ◽  
Hauke Harms ◽  
Susann M�ller
Keyword(s):  
16S Rrna ◽  
Diesel Fuel ◽  
Flow Cytometric Analysis ◽  
16S Rrna Gene Sequencing ◽  
Active Species ◽  
Oil Field ◽  
16S Rrna Genes ◽  
Rrna Genes ◽  
Natural Soil ◽  
Rrna Gene

ABSTRACT The diversity and dynamics of a bacterial community extracted from an exploited oil field with high natural soil salinity near Comodoro Rivadavia in Patagonia (Argentina) were investigated. Community shifts during long-term incubation with diesel fuel at four salinities between 0 and 20% NaCl were monitored by single-strand conformation polymorphism community fingerprinting of the PCR-amplified V4-V5 region of the 16S rRNA genes. Information obtained by this qualitative approach was extended by flow cytometric analysis to follow quantitatively the dynamics of community structures at different salinities. Dominant and newly developing clusters of individuals visualized via their DNA patterns versus cell sizes were used to identify the subcommunities primarily involved in the degradation process. To determine the most active species, subcommunities were separated physically by high-resolution cell sorting and subsequent phylogenetic identification by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Reduced salinity favored the dominance of Sphingomonas spp., whereas at elevated salinities, Ralstonia spp. and a number of halophilic genera, including Halomonas, Dietzia, and Alcanivorax, were identified. The combination of cytometric sorting with molecular characterization allowed us to monitor community adaptation and to identify active and proliferating subcommunities.

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