Archaeology, science-based archaeology and the Mediterranean Bronze Age metals trade: a contribution to the debate

The current consensus is outlined about the application of lead isotope analyses to metal provenance studies and to the unravelling of the Mediterranean Bronze Age copper trade, with special reference to copper oxhide ingots. Various misconceptions, especially some of those contained in Knapp (1999, 2000), are corrected. It is shown that there is no need to fall back on hypotheses based upon the Mediterranean-wide mixing/recycling of copper metals to explain the lead isotope characteristics of post-1250 BC copper oxhide ingots, since there is a good isotopic coincidence between these ingots and the Apliki region ore deposits in Cyprus. Weaknesses are exposed in the hypotheses of direct or indirect pooling of Cypriot ores, and of the proposed widespread recycling of metals in a Mediterranean-widekoine, particularly since there is no evidence for a homogeneity of lead isotope composition in artefacts and no tin in the oxhide ingots.

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The Ølby Woman:

Danish Journal of Archaeology ◽

10.7146/dja.v8i0.114995 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 8 ◽

pp. 1-22

Author(s):

Samantha Scott Reiter ◽

Karin Margarita Frei ◽

Heide Wrobel Nørgaard ◽

Flemming Kaul

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Lead Isotope ◽

Raw Materials ◽

Dental Enamel ◽

Strontium Isotope ◽

Mobility Patterns ◽

Provenance Studies ◽

Non Local ◽

Isotope Analyses ◽

Potential Mobility

The Early Nordic Bronze Age oak coffin burials include some of Europe’s best preserved human remains. Although traditional typological examinations thereof have not always found clear foreign references, recent provenance investigations from Egtved and Skrydstrup suggest that the two women were of non-local provenance. In order to investigate potential mobility patterns and how these might or might not be related to the archaeological evidence, we conducted comprehensive multi-analytical investigations on the Ølby Woman, another key female oak coffin burial. Her grave included large metal items, the remains of a corded skirt and a glass bead recently identified as of Egyptian origin. Strontium isotope analyses of the dental enamel of Ølby’s first, second and third molars investigate her provenance and potential mobility through childhood. Furthermore, we conducted lead isotope analyses and craft technical analyses of her belt plate and sword/dagger. Our results reveal that the Ølby female’s strontium isotope signatures fall within the local baseline, suggesting that she was of local origin. The metal provenance studies and craft technical studies of the belt plate and sword suggest that the objects were manufactured in Scandinavia, while the raw materials for each item were imported from different places in Europe.

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Chemical composition and lead isotopy of copper and bronze from Nuragic Sardinia

European Journal of Archaeology ◽

10.1179/eja.2001.4.1.43 ◽

2001 ◽

Vol 4 (1) ◽

pp. 43-85 ◽

Cited By ~ 40

Author(s):

Friedrich Begemann ◽

Sigrid Schmitt-Strecker ◽

Ernst Pernicka ◽

Fulvia Lo Schiavo

Keyword(s):

Trace Element ◽

Lead Isotope ◽

Isotope Composition ◽

Ore Deposits ◽

Lead Isotope Composition ◽

Wide Range ◽

Trace Element Contents ◽

Composition Characteristic ◽

Tin Content ◽

Copper Ores

We present data on the chemical and lead isotope composition of copper and bronze objects from Nuragic Sardinia. The sample suite comprises, inter alia, objects from the hoard finds at Arzachena (21 objects), Bonnanaro (10), Ittireddu (34), and Pattada (20), all in northern Sardinia. With one exception, all ingot fragments (49) consist of unalloyed copper; the exception comes from Ittireddu and contains 11 per cent tin. In contradistinction, all implements (21) are made from standard bronze with a mean tin content of 10.8 per cent. A dozen sword fragments from the Arzachena hoard, all of fairly uniform small size, are pieces of a large number of different swords. The low tin content of only about 1 per cent would have made for poor weapons, confirming the archaeological identification of the fragments as pieces of votive swords. Scrap metal from Arzachena is remarkable for its wide range of trace element contents and lead isotope abundance ratios. It is dissimilar to all other metal samples investigated, possibly representing metal from local smelting experiments using a variety of different copper ores. Lead isotope data and trace element patterns, alone or in conjunction, do not allow us to tell oxhide ingots from plano-convex (bun) ingots. Most ingot fragments have a lead isotope signature similar to those of Cypriot copper ores but there are also a number of ingots whose lead isotope fingerprints are fully compatible with them being local products. Of the bronzes, none has lead with an isotopic composition characteristic of copper ingots from Cyprus. All contain local lead, suggesting the bronze implements were manufactured locally. Isotopically-fitting lead is found in copper and lead ore deposits from the Iglesiente-Sulcis district in south-west Sardinia and from Funtana Raminosa in central Sardinia.

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Experimental reconstruction of the casting of copper ‘oxhide’ ingots

Antiquity ◽

10.1017/s0003598x00059226 ◽

2000 ◽

Vol 74 (284) ◽

pp. 275-276 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Sven Van Lokeren

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Lead Isotope ◽

Average Weight ◽

Late Bronze Age ◽

Specialized Centre ◽

The Mediterranean ◽

The Rich ◽

Oxford Group ◽

Isotope Analyses

One of the most crucial elements in the dynamics of the Late Bronze Age metals trade in the Mediterranean was the production and exchange of copper 'oxhide' ingots (Knapp & Cherry 1994). These are basically flat, oblong slabs of nearly pure and unalloyed copper that weigh between 10 and 40 kg. The majority has an average weight of c. 29-30 kg however, and as a result this 'standard' has been traditionally equated with the existence of a 'talent'. They furthermore form a prominent part of the bulk cargo in shipwrecks discovered at Ulu Burun and Cape Gelidonya (Gale 1991). The results of an extensive programme of lead-isotope analyses aimed at determining the provenance of these ingots have led some archaeologists to propose that most of the ingots were produced from the rich copper resources on the island of Cyprus. Based on the same results, the Oxford group has also discussed the possibility of a specialized centre for their production in the Skouriotissa region of the island (Stos-Gale et ~ l . 1997

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Significance of Lead Isotope Composition in Blood

Nature ◽

10.1038/244165a0 ◽

1973 ◽

Vol 244 (5412) ◽

pp. 165-167 ◽

Cited By ~ 19

Author(s):

W. I. MANTON

Keyword(s):

Lead Isotope ◽

Isotope Composition ◽

Lead Isotope Composition

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A Non-local Source of Irish Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Gold

Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society ◽

10.1017/ppr.2015.4 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 81 ◽

pp. 149-177 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

Christopher D. Standish ◽

Bruno Dhuime ◽

Chris J. Hawkesworth ◽

Alistair W. G. Pike

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Lead Isotope ◽

Ore Deposits ◽

Local Source ◽

Geochemical Data ◽

Early Bronze Age ◽

Element Analysis ◽

Alluvial Deposits ◽

Study Region ◽

South West

Lead isotope analyses of 50 Irish Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age gold artefacts favour a gold source in southern Ireland. However when combined with major element analysis, the artefacts are not consistent with any Irish gold deposit analysed to date. Understanding the lead isotope signatures of ore deposits within a study region allows informed inferences to be drawn regarding the likelihood that an unanalysed ore deposit was exploited in the past. If an Irish gold source is assumed, then the gold is most likely to have originated from deposits hosted by Old Red Sandstone in the Variscan ore field of south-west Ireland. However, based on our current understanding of mineralisation in the region, this scenario is considered unlikely. A non-Irish source for the gold is therefore preferred – a scenario that may favour cosmologically-driven acquisition, ie, the deliberate procurement of a material from distant or esoteric sources. Available geochemical data, combined with current archaeological evidence, favour the alluvial deposits of south-west Britain as the most likely source of the gold.

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Accurate and precise determination of lead isotope composition in selected geochemical reference materials

Acta Geochimica ◽

10.1007/s11631-017-0181-3 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 36 (3) ◽

pp. 421-425 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Guangliang Wu ◽

Jian-Ming Zhu ◽

Decan Tan ◽

Guilin Han ◽

Lixing Zhang ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Reference Materials ◽

Lead Isotope ◽

Isotope Composition ◽

Precise Determination ◽

Lead Isotope Composition ◽

Geochemical Reference Materials

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Lead isotope composition of Peruvian galenas

Economic Geology ◽

10.2113/gsecongeo.52.8.914 ◽

1957 ◽

Vol 52 (8) ◽

pp. 914-922 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

J. Laurence Kulp ◽

G. C. Amstutz ◽

F. Donald Eckelmann

Keyword(s):

Lead Isotope ◽

Isotope Composition ◽

Lead Isotope Composition

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Isotopic Compositions of Selected Ore Leads from Northeastern Washington

Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences ◽

10.1139/e73-067 ◽

1973 ◽

Vol 10 (5) ◽

pp. 670-678 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

W. D. Small

Keyword(s):

Isotopic Composition ◽

Lead Isotope ◽

Isotope Composition ◽

Canadian Cordillera ◽

Basement Structure ◽

Late Mesozoic ◽

Sedimentary Structures ◽

Lead Isotope Composition ◽

Isotopic Abundances ◽

Primary Type

Isotopic composition of ore leads from four districts in northeastern Washington has been measured with a precision in the ratios of about 0.1‰. Results indicate that the mineralization in the Marshall Diorites of Pend Oreille County is by a primary type lead with a model age of about 1300 to 1500 m.y. The remainder of the measured leads from Pend Oreille and Stevens Counties have a radiogenic component which could have developed in a closed system during the interval 1370 to about 250 m.y. ago. Leads from Ferry and Okanogan Counties have only slight variations in their isotopic abundances. These latter leads could have been produced by an homogenization of the leads from Pend Oreille and Stevens Counties through the mechanism of a late Mesozoic metamorphism of Mesozoic sedimentary structures in Ferry and Okanogan Counties, these latter sedimentary structures being the products of erosion of rocks in Pend Oreille and Stevens Counties. There is no evidence of an ancient basement structure under Ferry and Okanogan Counties from the data presented herein. The lead isotope composition of the ores from northeastern Washington is compatible with the current concepts of the crustal structure across the Canadian Cordillera.

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