scholarly journals 650 PB 022 DIFFERENT LETTUCE TYPES RESPOND SIMILARLY TO P FERTILIZATION

HortScience ◽  
1994 ◽  
Vol 29 (5) ◽  
pp. 525g-526
Author(s):  
N.M. El-Hout ◽  
C.A. Sanchez
Keyword(s):  
Field Experiments ◽  
Maximum Yield ◽  
Relative Yield ◽  
Yield Potential ◽  
Soil Test ◽  
P Fertilization ◽  
Yield And Quality ◽  
Large Yield ◽  
Soil Test P ◽  
The Relationship

The production of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) types other than crisphead (i.e., leaf, boston, bibb, and romaine) has recently increased due to expanding consumer demand. Fertilizer P recommendations for these lettuce types are largely based on soil-test calibrations for the crisphead type only. However, biomass production and morphological traits of the different lettuce types vary. Four field experiments were conducted to compare the relative efficiencies of these lettuce types to P fertilization. All lettuce types showed large yield and quality responses to P. Because environmental conditions affected yield potential, P rates required for optimal yield varied by lettuce type within experiments. However, the P rates required for optimal yield were similar over all experiments. Furthermore, the relationship between relative yield and soil-test P across all seasons showed a similar soil-test P level was required for maximum yield of all lettuce types. The results of this study show that soil-test-based fertilizer recommendations for crisphead lettuce may be adequate for all lettuce types

scholarly journals Response of Diverse Lettuce Types to Fertilizer Phosphorus

HortScience ◽  
1995 ◽  
Vol 30 (3) ◽  
pp. 528-531 ◽  
Author(s):  
C.A. Sanchez ◽  
N.M. El-Hout
Keyword(s):  
Field Experiments ◽  
Maximum Yield ◽  
Relative Yield ◽  
Yield Potential ◽  
Soil Test ◽  
P Fertilization ◽  
Large Yield ◽  
Soil Test P ◽  
Southern Florida ◽  
Index Level

Four field experiments were conducted from 1990 to 1992 on Histosols in southern Florida to compare the relative response of various types of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) (i.e., leaf, Boston, Bibb, romaine, and crisphead lettuce) to P fertilization. All lettuce types showed large yield and quality responses to P fertilization. Because environmental conditions affected yield potential, P rates required for optimal yield varied for lettuce types across experiments. However, with the exception of Boston, the P rates required for optimal yield were similar when averaged over all experiments. Furthermore, the relationship between relative yield and soil-test P across all seasons showed that a similar soil-test P index level was required for maximum yield of all lettuce types. Overall, the results of this study suggest that existing soil-test-based fertilizer recommendations for crisphead lettuce are adequate for other lettuce types currently grown.

Using soil testing and petiole analysis to determine phosphorus fertiliser requirements of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Delaware) in the Manjimup-Pemberton region of Western Australia

2000 ◽  
Vol 40 (1) ◽  
pp. 107 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. A. Hegney ◽  
I. R. McPharlin ◽  
R. C. Jeffery
Keyword(s):  
Solanum Tuberosum ◽  
Tuber Yield ◽  
Solanum Tuberosum L ◽  
Maximum Yield ◽  
Soil Testing ◽  
Yield Response ◽  
Soil Test ◽  
Versus Level ◽  
Soil Test P ◽  
The Relationship

Field experiments were conducted over 3 years at 21 sites of varying phosphorus (P) fertiliser histories (Colwell P range: 9–170 g/g) in the Manjimup–Pemberton region of Western Australia to examine the effects of freshly applied (current) and previously applied (residual or soil test ) P on the yield of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Delaware). Phosphorus was placed (banded) at planting, 5 cm either side of and below seed planted at 20 cm depth, at levels up to 800 kg P/ha. Exponential [y = a – b exp (–cx)] regressions were fitted to the relationship between tuber yield and level of applied P at all sites. Weighted (according to the variance) exponential regressions were fitted to the relationship between yield responsiveness (b/a, from the yield versus level of applied P relationship) and Colwell P, and two P sorption indices—phosphate adsorption (P-adsorb) and a modified phosphate retention index (PRI(100)). A weighted exponential regression was also fitted to the relationship between the level of applied P required for 95% of maximum yield (Popt; also from yield versus level of applied P) and P-adsorb and PRI(100). A weighted linear regression best described the relationship between Popt and Colwell P. Phosphorus application significantly (P<0.10; from the regression analysis) increased total tuber yield at all but 4 sites. Marketable tuber yield response paralleled total tuber yield response at all sites and averaged 85% of total yields (range 63–94%). Colwell P gave a good prediction of the likely yield response of potatoes across all sites. For example, the yield responsiveness (b/a) of potatoes in relation to Colwell P decreased exponentially from 1.07 at 0 g/g to 0, or no yield response, at 157 g/g Colwell P (R2 = 0.96) i.e. the critical Colwell P for 95% of maximum yield of potatoes on soils in the Manjimup–Pemberton region. Similarly, no yield response (b/a = 0) would be expected at a P-adsorb of 180 g/g (R2 = 0.69) or a PRI(100) of 46 (R2 = 0.61). The level of applied P required for 95% of maximum yield (Popt) decreased linearly from 124 kg/ha on infertile sites (<5 g/g Colwell P) to 0 kg P/ha at 160 g/g Colwell P (R2 = 0.66). However, a more accurate prediction of Popt was possible using either P-adsorb or PRI(100). For example, Popt increased exponentially from 0 kg/ha at <181 g/g P-adsorb (high P soils) to 153 kg/ha at a P-adsorb of 950 g/g (low P soils) (R2 = 0.75) and exponentially from 0 kg/ha at a PRI(100) of <48 (high P soils) to 147 kg/ha at a PRI(100) of 750 (low P soils) (R2 = 0.80). PRI(100) is preferred as a soil test to predict Popt for potatoes in the Manjimup–Pemberton region because of its superior accuracy to the Colwell test. It is also preferred to P-adsorb because of both superior accuracy and lower cost as it is a simpler and less time consuming procedure — features which are important for adoption by commercial soil testing services. A multiple regression including Colwell P, P-adsorb and PRI(100) only improved the prediction of Popt slightly (R2 = 0.89) over PRI(100) alone. When tubers were 10 mm long, the total P in petioles of youngest fully expanded leaves which corresponded with 95% of maximum yield was 0.41% (dry weight basis). These results show that, while the Colwell soil P test is a useful predictor of the responsiveness of potato yield to applied P across a range of soils in the Manjimup–Pemberton region, consideration of both the soil test P value and the P sorption capacity of the soil, as determined here by PRI(100), is required for accurate predictions of the level of P fertiliser required to achieve maximum yields on individual sites.

Phosphorus requirements of winter-planted lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) on a Karrakatta sand and the residual value of phosphate as determined by soil test

1996 ◽  
Vol 36 (7) ◽  
pp. 897 ◽  
Author(s):  
IR McPharlin ◽  
RC Jeffery ◽  
DH Pitman
Keyword(s):  
Lactuca Sativa ◽  
Maximum Yield ◽  
Relative Yield ◽  
Phosphorus Recovery ◽  
Yield Response ◽  
Soil Test ◽  
Recovery Efficiency ◽  
Lactuca Sativa L ◽  
Soil Test P ◽  
Whole Plants

The phosphorus (P) requirements of crisphead lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Oxley) was measured over 2 consecutive winter plantings using superphosphate that was freshly applied and applied 9 months before planting, at 0-600 kg/ha on a newly cleared Karrakatta sand of low natural P fertility. There was a significant (P<0.001) head yield response to level of applied P in both years. Phosphorus uptake by whole plants and plant shoots was related to level of applied P in Mitscherlich relationships (R2 = 0.88). Phosphorus recovery efficiency (fertiliser P uptake by shoots/P applied, both in kg/ha) by shoots decreased from 0.16 at 50 to 0.04 at 600 kg applied P/ha. Phosphorus recovery efficiency by whole plants (shoots plus roots) decreased from 0.18 at 50 to 0.05 at 600 kg P/ha. The level of freshly applied P required for either 95 or 99% of maximum relative yield over the 2 years (maximum yield, 86 t/ha) was 276 and 427 kg P/ha (Mitscherlich relationship, R2 = 0.95), respectively at <10 �g/g soil test P (newly cleared sites). The marketable yield was 82 and 95% of total yield at 276 and 427 kg P/ha respectively. Bicarbonate-soluble P extracted from the top 15 cm of soil was determined on residual P sites over 2 years where P was applied at 0-600 kg/ha. These soil test levels were related to head yield in a Mitscherlich relationship (R2 = 0.88). The critical soil test P values required for either 95 or 99% of maximum relative yield, over the 2 years, were 80 and 115 �g/g, respectively. Phosphorus in the wrapper leaf at early heading required for 95 or 99% of maximum yield was 0.59 � 0.03 and 0.61 � 0.03% (spline regression, R2 = 0.80), respectively. Soil and plant testing could be used to assist in reducing fertiliser costs, improving utilisation of freshly- and previously-applied fertiliser P by lettuce and reducing P losses to water systems on the Swan Coastal Plain in Western Australia.

Response of spring-planted lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) to freshly-applied and residual phosphorus and to phosphate fertiliser placement on a Karrakatta sand

1997 ◽  
Vol 37 (6) ◽  
pp. 701
Author(s):  
W. J. Robertson ◽  
I. R. McPharlin
Keyword(s):  
Lactuca Sativa ◽  
Maximum Yield ◽  
Relative Yield ◽  
P Uptake ◽  
Soil Test ◽  
Recovery Efficiency ◽  
Lactuca Sativa L ◽  
Phosphate Fertiliser ◽  
Soil Test P ◽  
Whole Plants

Summary. The phosphorus (P) requirements of crisphead lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Salinas) were measured over 2 consecutive spring plantings using superphosphate that was freshly applied and applied 9 months before planting, at 0–600 kg P/ha on a newly-cleared Karrakatta sand of low natural P fertility. The response of lettuce to placement of phosphate fertiliser (banded, broadcast) was also investigated. There was a significant (P<0.001) head yield response to level of applied P in all experiments. There was no significant effect of placement on yield even though the concentrations of P in the wrapper leaves were on average 12% higher in the broadcast treatment. A Mitscherlich function described the relationship of P uptake by whole plants and plant shoots to level of applied P. Recovery efficiency of P fertiliser (fertiliser P uptake by shoots/P applied, both in kg/ha) by shoots decreased from 0.12 at 50 to 0.05 at 600 kg applied P/ha. Phosphorus recovery efficiency by whole plants (shoots plus roots) decreased from 0.13 at 50 to 0.05 at 600 kg P/ha. The level of freshly-applied P required for 95 and 99% of maximum relative yield over the 2 years (maximum yield, 89–112 t/ha) was 185 and 286 kg P/ha (Mitscherlich relationship, R2 = 0.93), respectively, at <10 µg/g soil test P (newly-cleared sites). The marketable yield was 82 and 92% of total yield at 185 and 286 kg P/ha respectively. Bicarbonate-soluble P extracted from the top 15 cm of soil was determined on residual P sites over 2 years where P was applied at 0–600 kg/ha. These soil test levels were related to head yield in a Mitscherlich relationship (R2 = 0.90). The critical soil test P values required for 95 and 99% of maximum relative yield, over the 2 years, were 81 and 121 µg/g respectively. Phosphorus in the wrapper leaf at early heading required for 95 and 99% of maximum yield was 0.40 ± 0.02 and 0.42 ± 0.02% (spline regression, R2 = 0.81), respectively. Soil and plant testing could be used to assist in reducing fertiliser costs, improving the efficiency of use of freshly- and previously-applied fertiliser P by lettuce and reducing P losses to water systems on the Swan Coastal Plain in Western Australia. Changing placement from broadcasting to banding will not improve efficiency of phosphate fertiliser use by lettuce on Karrakatta sands.

Response of onions (Allium cepa L.) to phosphate fertiliser placement and residual phosphorus on a Karrakatta sand

1999 ◽  
Vol 39 (3) ◽  
pp. 351 ◽  
Author(s):  
W. J. Robertson ◽  
I. R. McPharlin
Keyword(s):  
Maximum Yield ◽  
Relative Yield ◽  
P Uptake ◽  
Soil Test ◽  
Recovery Efficiency ◽  
Mature Leaves ◽  
Phosphate Fertiliser ◽  
Allium Cepa L ◽  
Soil Test P ◽  
Bulb Yield

The phosphorus (P) requirement of irrigated onions (Allium cepa L. cv. Creamgold) was measured over 2 consecutive spring plantings using superphosphate that was freshly-applied and applied 9 months before planting, at 0–800 kg P/ha on a newly cleared Karrakatta sand of low natural P fertility. The response of onions to placement of phosphate fertiliser (banded or broadcast) was also investigated. There was a significant (P<0.001) bulb yield response to level of applied P in all experiments. There was no significant effect of placement on yield although the concentrations of P in the youngest mature leaves and bulbs were on average 18% higher (i.e. 0.40 v. 0.34%) than in the broadcast treatment. A rectangular hyperbola described the relationship of P uptake by shoots or bulbs to level of applied P. Recovery efficiency (RE) of fertiliser P (P uptake by bulbs at rate i of applied P – uptake in absence of applied P/rate i of applied P) by bulbs after curing decreased from 0.43 at 50 kg P/ha to 0.06 at 600 kg P/ha. Recovery efficiency by bulbs at applied P required for 95 and 99% of maximum yield was 0.20 and 0.14 respectively. The level of freshly-applied P required for 95 and 99% of maximum relative yield over the 2 years (maximum yield, 80–100 t/ha) was 122 and 203 kg P/ha (Mitscherlich relationship, R2 = 0.82), respectively, at <10 g/g Colwell P soil test (newly cleared sites). The marketable (total – reject) yield was 94% and 92% of total yield at 122 and 203 kg P/ha respectively. Bicarbonate-soluble P extracted from the top 15 cm of soil was determined on residual P sites over 2 years where P was applied at 0–800 kg/ha. These soil test levels were related to bulb yield in a Mitscherlich relationship (R2 = 0.90). The critical soil test P values required for 95 and 99% of maximum relative yield, over the 2 years, were 50 and 80 g/g respectively. Phosphorus in the youngest mature leaves required for 95 and 99% of maximum yield ranged from 0.22–0.28 to 0.26–0.32%, respectively, from the Mitscherlich regressions, depending on plant stage (i.e. leaf number or days after sowing) although there was no consistent trend with age. Soil testing can be used to reduce current applications of fertiliser P without reducing yield. Plant testing can be used to monitor the P status and associated fertiliser needs of onions on sands. Both these testing procedures need to be verified in commercial crops with a wide variation in soil test P levels and management practices. Soil and plant testing could therefore be used to reduce fertiliser application and cost, improve fertiliser RE by onions and reduce fertiliser P losses to water systems on the Swan Coastal Plain. Changing placement from broadcasting to banding does not appear to improve the efficiency of phosphate fertiliser use by irrigated onions on Karrakatta sands.

Soil and tissue tests to predict pasture yield responses to applications of potassium fertiliser in high-rainfall areas of south-western Australia

2002 ◽  
Vol 42 (2) ◽  
pp. 149 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. D. A. Bolland ◽  
W. J. Cox ◽  
B. J. Codling
Keyword(s):  
Western Australia ◽  
Field Experiments ◽  
Relative Yield ◽  
Subterranean Clover ◽  
Test Method ◽  
Yield Response ◽  
Soil Test ◽  
Test Procedures ◽  
Pasture Production ◽  
Yield Responses

Dairy and beef pastures in the high (>800 mm annual average) rainfall areas of south-western Australia, based on subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) and annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum), grow on acidic to neutral deep (>40 cm) sands, up to 40 cm sand over loam or clay, or where loam or clay occur at the surface. Potassium deficiency is common, particularly for the sandy soils, requiring regular applications of fertiliser potassium for profitable pasture production. A large study was undertaken to assess 6 soil-test procedures, and tissue testing of dried herbage, as predictors of when fertiliser potassium was required for these pastures. The 100 field experiments, each conducted for 1 year, measured dried-herbage production separately for clover and ryegrass in response to applied fertiliser potassium (potassium chloride). Significant (P<0.05) increases in yield to applied potassium (yield response) were obtained in 42 experiments for clover and 6 experiments for ryegrass, indicating that grass roots were more able to access potassium from the soil than clover roots. When percentage of the maximum (relative) yield was related to soil-test potassium values for the top 10 cm of soil, the best relationships were obtained for the exchangeable (1 mol/L NH4Cl) and Colwell (0.5 mol/L NaHCO3-extracted) soil-test procedures for potassium. Both procedures accounted for about 42% of the variation for clover, 15% for ryegrass, and 32% for clover + grass. The Colwell procedure for the top 10 cm of soil is now the standard soil-test method for potassium used in Western Australia. No increases in clover yields to applied potassium were obtained for Colwell potassium at >100 mg/kg soil. There was always a clover-yield increase to applied potassium for Colwell potassium at <30 mg/kg soil. Corresponding potassium concentrations for ryegrass were >50 and <30 mg/kg soil. At potassium concentrations 30–100 mg/kg soil for clover and 30–50 mg/kg soil for ryegrass, the Colwell procedure did not reliably predict yield response, because from nil to large yield responses to applied potassium occurred. The Colwell procedure appears to extract the most labile potassium in the soil, including soluble potassium in soil solution and potassium balancing negative charge sites on soil constituents. In some soils, Colwell potassium was low indicating deficiency, yet plant roots may have accessed potassum deeper in the soil profile. Where the Colwell procedure does not reliably predict soil potassium status, tissue testing may help. The relationship between relative yield and tissue-test potassium varied markedly for different harvests in each year of the experiments, and for different experiments. For clover, the concentration of potassium in dried herbage that was related to 90% of the maximum, potassium non-limiting yield (critical potassium) was at the concentration of about 15 g/kg dried herbage for plants up to 8 weeks old, and at <10 g/kg dried herbage for plants older than 10–12 weeks. For ryegrass, there were insufficient data to provide reliable estimates of critical potassium.

Effect of nitrogen on the yield and quality of irrigated onions (Allium cepa L.) cv. Cream Gold grown on siliceous sands

1990 ◽  
Vol 30 (6) ◽  
pp. 845 ◽  
Author(s):  
NA Maier ◽  
AP Dahlenburg ◽  
TK Twigden
Keyword(s):  
Field Experiments ◽  
Maximum Yield ◽  
Soluble Solids ◽  
Fresh Weight ◽  
Marketable Yield ◽  
Scale Thickness ◽  
Yield And Quality ◽  
Allium Cepa L ◽  
Nitrogen Rates

The effect of nitrogen (N), at rates up to 590 kg N/ha, on the yield and quality of Cream Gold onions grown on siliceous sands was investigated in field experiments conducted during 1987-88 (1 site) and 1988-89 (2 sites). As the rate of applied N increased there was a significant (P<0.001) increase in the fresh weight of tops harvested when the largest bulbs were 25-30 mm in diameter. Fresh weight of tops was significantly (P<0.001) correlated with final marketable yield of bulbs. Nitrogen application accelerated top senescence. Nitrogen-deficient plants had erect green tops at harvest. Marketable yield was significantly (P<0.01) increased and the yield of culls (unmarketable bulbs) was significantly (P<0.01) decreased as the rate of N increased at all sites. Nitrogen rates in the range 299-358 kg N/ha were required for 95% of maximum yield. Scale thickness increased significantly (P<0.05) and glucose and fructose concentrations decreased significantly (P<0.05) at 2 sites as the rate of applied N increased. Soluble solids and dry matter of bulbs were not affected by N. Bulb size increased as the rate of applied N increased, however, the magnitude of the effect varied between sites. Number of days to 10% sprouting during storage at 15 � 0.5�C was significantly increased as the rate of applied N increased up to 40 kg N/ha at 2 sites. We have concluded that for the cv. Cream Gold grown on siliceous sands, the high rates of fertiliser N required to maximise marketable yield and bulb size were not detrimental to quality.

scholarly journals Predicting Need for Phosphorus Fertilizer by Soil Testing During Seeding of Cool Season Grasses

HortScience ◽  
2006 ◽  
Vol 41 (7) ◽  
pp. 1690-1697 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stephanie C. Hamel ◽  
Joseph R. Heckman
Keyword(s):  
Perennial Ryegrass ◽  
Tall Fescue ◽  
Kentucky Bluegrass ◽  
Soil Testing ◽  
Soil Test ◽  
P Fertilization ◽  
Extractable P ◽  
Soil Test P ◽  
Grass Establishment ◽  
Bray 1

Recent changes in soil testing methodology, the important role of P fertilization in early establishment and soil coverage, and new restrictions on P applications to turf suggest a need for soil test calibration research on Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb), and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). Greenhouse and field studies were conducted for 42 days to examine the relationship between soil test P levels and P needs for rapid grass establishment using 23 NJ soils with a Mehlich-3 extractable P ranging from 6 to 1238 mg·kg–1. Soil tests (Mehlich-1, Mehlich-3, and Bray-1) for extractable P were performed by inductively coupled plasma–atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP). Mehlich-3 extractable P and Al were measured to evaluate the ratio of P to Al as a predictor of need for P fertilizer. Kentucky bluegrass establishment was more sensitive to low soil P availability than tall fescue or perennial ryegrass. Soil test extractants Mehlich-1, Bray-1, or Mehlich-3 were each effective predictors of need for P fertilization. The ratio of P to Al (Mehlich-3 P/Al %) was a better predictor of tall fescue and perennial ryegrass establishment response to P fertilization than soil test P alone. The Mehlich-1, Bray-1, and Mehlich-3 soil test P critical levels for clipping yield response were in the range of 170 to 280 mg·kg–1, depending on the soil test extractant, for tall fescue and perennial ryegrass. The Mehlich-3 P/Al (%) critical level was 42% for tall fescue and 33% for perennial ryegrass. Soil test critical levels, based on estimates from clipping yield data, could not be determined for Kentucky bluegrass using the soils in this study. Soil testing for P has the potential to aid in protection of water quality by helping to identify sites where P fertilization can accelerate grass establishment and thereby prevent soil erosion, and by identifying sites that do not need P fertilization, thereby preventing further P enrichment of soil and runoff. Because different grass species have varying critical P levels for establishment, both soil test P and the species should be incorporated into the decision-making process regarding P fertilization.

scholarly journals Effect of different rates of P fertilization on the yield and P status of the soil in two long-term field experiments

1989 ◽  
Vol 61 (5) ◽  
pp. 361-370 ◽  
Author(s):  
Markku Yli-Halla
Keyword(s):  
Field Experiments ◽  
Maximum Yield ◽  
Cereal Grains ◽  
Phosphorus Fertilization ◽  
P Fertilization ◽  
Npk Fertilizers ◽  
Extractable P ◽  
P Rate ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Seed Crops

Two field experiments on P fertilization were conducted on clay soils in Southern Finland. The rates of P applied yearly in granular NPK fertilizers were 0, 13/16, 26/32, 47/56 and 60/72 kg P/ha in 1974—82/1983 —85. Oats, barley, spring wheat and winter wheat were grown, in two years also oil seed crops. In one experiment, the maximum yield of cereal grains in the first nine years (4 460 kg/ha) was reached at the P rate of 13 kg/ha, but thereafter at 32 kg P/ha. The average difference between the maximum yields and the ones obtained without P fertilization was 470 kg/ha (12 %) in 1974—80, but during the last four years the difference increased to 1 360 kg/ha (40 %), owing to the depletion of P in the plots not fertilized with P. Also in the other experiment, in which the maximum yield of cereal grains (4 790 kg/ha) was obtained at the P rate of 26/32 kg/ha, the response to P fertilization increased towards the end of the trial, the mean response during the last three years being 570 kg/ha (12 %). Phosphorus fertilization, up to the P level at which the maximum yield was reached, decreased the moisture content of cereal grains at harvest. The quantity of P extracted with 0.5 M NH4-acetate-0.5 M acetic acid (pH 4.65) decreased in the plots not fertilized with P, from 5.8 mg/l to 2.2 mg/l and from 6.2 mg/l to 1.8 mg/l in the course of the two trials. The original level of acetate-extractable P was somewhat maintained but not elevated by P rates of 26/32, 47/56 and 60/72 kg/ha. Residual P was recovered mainly in the fractions extractable with NH4F (“Al-P”) and NaOH (“Fe-P”).

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