Thermal energy from drinking water and cost benefit analysis for an entire city

2013 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 11-16 ◽  
Author(s):  
E. J. M. Blokker ◽  
A. M. van Osch ◽  
R. Hogeveen ◽  
C. Mudde
Keyword(s):  
Drinking Water ◽  
Water Temperature ◽  
Thermal Energy ◽  
Distribution System ◽  
Water Distribution ◽  
Cost Benefit Analysis ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Pipe Material ◽  
Initial Water ◽  
Treated Water

The municipality of Almere is planning to develop a new carbon neutral neighbourhood. The area is located close to a treated water storage facility. By extracting enough thermal energy to provide 900 homes with energy for space heating and heating tap water, the temperature of the treated water is lowered by 1.16 °C. This could lead to an increase in the energy required to heat water for domestic purposes. The temperature of tap water is influenced by the temperature of the soil surrounding the drinking water distribution system. The rate at which the water temperature will reach the soil temperature depends on the pipe material, the pipe diameter and the flow velocity. With the help of a network model, the effect of a lower initial water temperature on every customer in Almere was determined. On average, all 75,000 connections would receive slightly cooler water. The energy to heat the extra 0.125 °C is equivalent to the energy required to heat approximately 85 homes. As the extracted thermal energy enables heating of 900 homes, the energy balance is very positive.

The Laboratory Study of Drinking Water Biofilms

2014 ◽  
Vol 535 ◽  
pp. 455-459
Author(s):  
Jing Guo Zhao ◽  
Yu Long Yang ◽  
Cong Li
Keyword(s):  
Drinking Water ◽  
Water Temperature ◽  
Distribution System ◽  
Distribution Systems ◽  
Water Distribution ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Pipe Material ◽  
Drinking Water Distribution Systems ◽  
Drinking Water Distribution ◽  
Key Aspects

Due to the existence of some kinds of minim organic matters in drinking water distribution systems, biofilms are commonly found on the inner walls of pipe networks, and it can contribute to the deterioration to water quality and influence water supply security. The current situations of the study of the biofilm are summarized. Two typical kinds of reactors often used in laboratories are stated. And numerous environmental factors influencing biofilm formation, including hydraulic condition, water temperature, pipe material, water temperature, disinfectant residuals and nutrient element, are reviewed. Furthermore, some key aspects for future research to control the development of biofilms are proposed. Keywords: drinking water distribution system; biofilm; simulation system; disinfectant residual

scholarly journals Drinking Water Temperature around the Globe: Understanding, Policies, Challenges and Opportunities

Water ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (4) ◽  
pp. 1049 ◽  
Author(s):  
Claudia Agudelo-Vera ◽  
Stefania Avvedimento ◽  
Joby Boxall ◽  
Enrico Creaco ◽  
Henk de Kater ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Drinking Water ◽  
Water Temperature ◽  
Distribution System ◽  
Water Distribution ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Water Source ◽  
Pipe Material ◽  
Climate Conditions ◽  
Network Characteristics ◽  
Challenges And Opportunities

Water temperature is often monitored at water sources and treatment works; however, there is limited monitoring of the water temperature in the drinking water distribution system (DWDS), despite a known impact on physical, chemical and microbial reactions which impact water quality. A key parameter influencing drinking water temperature is soil temperature, which is influenced by the urban heat island effects. This paper provides critique and comprehensive summary of the current knowledge, policies and challenges regarding drinking water temperature research and presents the findings from a survey of international stakeholders. Knowledge gaps as well as challenges and opportunities for monitoring and research are identified. The conclusion of the study is that temperature in the DWDS is an emerging concern in various countries regardless of the water source and treatment, climate conditions, or network characteristics such as topology, pipe material or diameter. More research is needed, especially to determine (i) the effect of higher temperatures, (ii) a legislative limit on temperature and (iii) measures to comply with this limit.

scholarly journals The Seasonality of Nitrite Concentrations in a Chloraminated Drinking Water Distribution System

2018 ◽  
Vol 15 (8) ◽  
pp. 1756 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pirjo-Liisa Rantanen ◽  
Ilkka Mellin ◽  
Minna Keinänen-Toivola ◽  
Merja Ahonen ◽  
Riku Vahala
Keyword(s):  
Drinking Water ◽  
Distribution System ◽  
Water Distribution ◽  
Water Distribution System ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Drinking Water Distribution System ◽  
Ammonium Oxidation ◽  
Water Age ◽  
Sampling Campaign ◽  
Drinking Water Distribution

We studied the seasonal variation of nitrite exposure in a drinking water distribution system (DWDS) with monochloramine disinfection in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area. In Finland, tap water is the main source of drinking water, and thus the nitrite in tap water increases nitrite exposure. Our data included both the obligatory monitoring and a sampling campaign data from a sampling campaign. Seasonality was evaluated by comparing a nitrite time series to temperature and by calculating the seasonal indices of the nitrite time series. The main drivers of nitrite seasonality were the temperature and the water age. We observed that with low water ages (median: 6.7 h) the highest nitrite exposure occurred during the summer months, and with higher water ages (median: 31 h) during the winter months. With the highest water age (190 h), nitrite concentrations were the lowest. At a low temperature, the high nitrite concentrations in the winter were caused by the decelerated ammonium oxidation. The dominant reaction at low water ages was ammonium oxidation into nitrite and, at high water ages, it was nitrite oxidation into nitrate. These results help to direct monitoring appropriately to gain exact knowledge of nitrite exposure. Also, possible future process changes and additional disinfection measures can be designed appropriately to minimize extra nitrite exposure.

scholarly journals Estimation of endotoxin inhalation from shower and humidifier exposure reveals potential risk to human health

2007 ◽  
Vol 5 (4) ◽  
pp. 553-572 ◽  
Author(s):  
William B. Anderson ◽  
D. George Dixon ◽  
Colin I. Mayfield
Keyword(s):  
Drinking Water ◽  
Distribution System ◽  
Water Distribution ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Cyanobacterial Blooms ◽  
Feed Water ◽  
Adverse Health Effects ◽  
Acute Response ◽  
Drinking Water Distribution ◽  
Treated Drinking Water

This paper investigates potential exposure to endotoxin in drinking water through the inhalation of aerosols generated by showers and humidifiers. Adverse health effects attributable to the inhalation of airborne endotoxin in various occupational settings are summarized, as are controlled laboratory inhalation studies. Data from investigations estimating aerosolization of particulate matter by showers and humidifiers provide a basis for similar analyses with endotoxin, which like minerals in water, is nonvolatile. A theoretical assessment of the inhalation of aerosolized endotoxin showed that while the likelihood of an acute response while showering is minimal, the same is not true for humidifiers. Ultrasonic and impeller (cool mist) humidifiers efficiently produce large numbers of respirable particles. It is predicted that airway inflammation can occur if humidifier reservoirs are filled with tap water, sometimes even at typical drinking-water distribution-system endotoxin concentrations. Higher endotoxin levels occasionally found in drinking water (>1,000 EU/ml) are very likely to induce symptoms such as chills and fever if used as humidifier feed water. While it is unlikely that treated drinking water would contain extremely high endotoxin levels occasionally observed in cyanobacterial blooms (>35,000 EU/ml), the potential for serious acute health consequences exist if used in humidifiers.

scholarly journals Microplastic in Food and Drinking Water - Environmental Monitoring Data

2020 ◽  
Vol 30 (4) ◽  
pp. 201-209
Author(s):  
Martyna Myszograj
Keyword(s):  
Drinking Water ◽  
Distribution System ◽  
Water Distribution ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Bottled Water ◽  
Polyether Sulfone ◽  
Analytical Standards ◽  
Disposable Plastic ◽  
Toxicokinetic Data ◽  
Recycled Material

Abstract Microplastics are present in the environment and have been found in seas and oceans, fresh water, sewage, food, air, and drinking water, both bottled and tap water. Nanoplastics can originate from engineered material or can be produced during fragmentation of microplastic debris. This paper presents an analysis of the research available in the literature on the content of microplastics in food, tap water, and bottled water. There is no legislation for microplastics as contaminants in food. Available data are from seafood species such as fish, shrimp, and bivalves, and also in other foods such as honey, beer, and table salt. In tap water, the measured amount of microplastic particles varies extensively and depends on the place of intake, type of conditioning, and water distribution system. Studies concerning bottled water have shown that water contains microplastics from disposable plastic bottles, bottles made of recycled material, and even glass bottles. The lack of analytical standards related to the adoption of the method of determination and identification of the size and form of microplastic particles was found to be problematic. The abovementioned particles were mainly identified as polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyamides (PA), polyether sulfone (PES), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and were between 1 and 150 μm in size. The most common shapes of the particles were fragments, followed by fibres and flakes. Toxicity and toxicokinetic data are lacking for microplastics for a human risk assessment.

scholarly journals Virus contamination from operation and maintenance events in small drinking water distribution systems

2011 ◽  
Vol 9 (4) ◽  
pp. 799-812 ◽  
Author(s):  
Elisabetta Lambertini ◽  
Susan K. Spencer ◽  
Burney A. Kieke ◽  
Frank J. Loge ◽  
Mark A. Borchardt
Keyword(s):  
Drinking Water ◽  
Distribution System ◽  
Distribution Systems ◽  
Water Distribution ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Water Distribution Systems ◽  
Ultraviolet Disinfection ◽  
Drinking Water Distribution Systems ◽  
Virus Contamination ◽  
Drinking Water Distribution

We tested the association of common events in drinking water distribution systems with contamination of household tap water with human enteric viruses. Viruses were enumerated by qPCR in the tap water of 14 municipal systems that use non-disinfected groundwater. Ultraviolet disinfection was installed at all active wellheads to reduce virus contributions from groundwater to the distribution systems. As no residual disinfectant was added to the water, any increase in virus levels measured downstream at household taps would be indicative of distribution system intrusions. Utility operators reported events through written questionnaires. Virus outcome measures were related to distribution system events using binomial and gamma regression. Virus concentrations were elevated in the wells, reduced or eliminated by ultraviolet disinfection, and elevated again in distribution systems, showing that viruses were, indeed, directly entering the systems. Pipe installation was significantly associated with higher virus levels, whereas hydrant flushing was significantly associated with lower virus levels. Weak positive associations were observed for water tower maintenance, valve exercising, and cutting open a water main. Coliform bacteria detections from routine monitoring were not associated with viruses. Understanding when distribution systems are most vulnerable to virus contamination, and taking precautionary measures, will ensure delivery of safe drinking water.

scholarly journals Prevalence of Legionella spp. and Escherichia coli in the drinking water distribution system of Wrocław (Poland)

2020 ◽  
Vol 20 (3) ◽  
pp. 1083-1090
Author(s):  
M. Wolf-Baca ◽  
A. Siedlecka
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Drinking Water ◽  
Legionella Pneumophila ◽  
Water Samples ◽  
Distribution System ◽  
Water Distribution ◽  
Tap Water ◽  
Potential Threat ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Drinking Water Distribution

Abstract Drinking water should be free from bacterial pathogens that threaten human health. The most recognised waterborne opportunistic pathogens, dwelling in tap water, are Legionella pneumophila and Escherichia coli. Drinking water samples were tested for the presence of Legionella spp., L. pneumophila, and E. coli in overall sample microbiomes using a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) approach. The results indicate a rather low contribution of Legionella spp. in total bacteria in the tested samples, but L. pneumophila was not detected in any sample. E. coli was detected in only one sample, but at a very low level. The qacEΔ1 gene, conferring resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds, was also not detected in any sample. The results point to generally sufficient quality of drinking water, although the presence of Legionella spp. in tap water samples suggests proliferation of these bacteria in heating units, causing a potential threat to consumer health.

scholarly journals Identifying (subsurface) anthropogenic heat sources that influence temperature in the drinking water distribution system

2017 ◽  
Vol 10 (2) ◽  
pp. 83-91 ◽  
Author(s):  
Claudia M. Agudelo-Vera ◽  
Mirjam Blokker ◽  
Henk de Kater ◽  
Rob Lafort
Keyword(s):  
Drinking Water ◽  
Soil Temperature ◽  
Water Temperature ◽  
Distribution System ◽  
Water Distribution ◽  
Spatial Scales ◽  
Anthropogenic Heat ◽  
Heat Sources ◽  
Drinking Water Distribution ◽  
Soil Temperatures

Abstract. The water temperature in the drinking water distribution system and at customers' taps approaches the surrounding soil temperature at a depth of 1 m. Water temperature is an important determinant of water quality. In the Netherlands drinking water is distributed without additional residual disinfectant and the temperature of drinking water at customers' taps is not allowed to exceed 25 °C. In recent decades, the urban (sub)surface has been getting more occupied by various types of infrastructures, and some of these can be heat sources. Only recently have the anthropogenic sources and their influence on the underground been studied on coarse spatial scales. Little is known about the urban shallow underground heat profile on small spatial scales, of the order of 10 m × 10 m. Routine water quality samples at the tap in urban areas have shown up locations – so-called hotspots – in the city, with relatively high soil temperatures – up to 7 °C warmer – compared to the soil temperatures in the surrounding rural areas. Yet the sources and the locations of these hotspots have not been identified. It is expected that with climate change during a warm summer the soil temperature in the hotspots can be above 25 °C. The objective of this paper is to find a method to identify heat sources and urban characteristics that locally influence the soil temperature. The proposed method combines mapping of urban anthropogenic heat sources, retrospective modelling of the soil temperature, analysis of water temperature measurements at the tap, and extensive soil temperature measurements. This approach provided insight into the typical range of the variation of the urban soil temperature, and it is a first step to identifying areas with potential underground heat stress towards thermal underground management in cities.

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