scholarly journals The influence of the initial reinforcement value on physiological parameters of conditioned respiratory reflex

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (3) ◽  
pp. 377-386
Author(s):  
Yu.Yu. Byalovskiy ◽  
◽  
I.S. Rakitina ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Unconditioned Stimulus ◽  
Conditioned Reflex ◽  
Physiological Parameters ◽  
Resistive Load ◽  
Respiratory Resistance ◽  
Initial Value ◽  
Conditioned Reaction ◽  
Reinforcement Value ◽  
Respiratory Reflex

BACKGROUND: Most of the studies of the role of reinforcement in the formation of adaptive behavior were performed on animals. At the same time, such an experimental model as a conditioned respiratory reflex to resistive load, has not been sufficiently studied, although an unconditioned reflex to additional resistance to breathing, on the basis of which a conditioned one is formed, is a stable reaction that has clear quantitative evaluation criteria, and the conditioned reflex itself is relatively strong, easily normalized, reluctantly extinguished and does not require observance of a number of methodological conditions. AIM: To study the influence of the initial value of reinforcement on the physiological parameters of the conditioned respiratory reflex. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The work was carried out on people of both genders, 16 people, aged 18 to 44, practically healthy. The unconditioned stimulus was applied in four gradations of external respiratory resistance: 11; 28; 54; 76 cm water • l/sec. The conditioned reflex was formed by the classic type, the duration of application of the conditioned stimulus was not fixed and its end coincided with the end of the action of the unconditioned stimulus, the period of the isolated action of the conditioned signal was 10 sec. As physiological parameters, we studied the ventilatory and motor parameters of respiration, the temporal parameters of the conditioned reaction. RESULTS: The influence of the unconditioned stimulus on the value of the tidal volume after the combination in all subjects depended on the absolute reinforcement values used in this combination, and was weakly connected with the initial reinforcement value. The influence of the external resistance on breathing used in this combination was significantly higher on such parameters as intraoral pressure of inspiration and expiration; the role of the initial reinforcement value in the dynamics of the given parameters was not confirmed. CONCLUSIONS: Most “sensitive” to the action of the initial value of the resistive load were the temporal parameters of the conditioned respiratory reflex — the latent period and the time of the conditioned reaction; the parameters of the “ventilatory” and “motor” outputs of the external respiration system changed noticeably, the spirometric parameters showed very little dynamics, and the capnographic parameters practically did not change. The dynamics of the parameters of the conditioned respiratory reflex to increased external respiratory resistance permits to single out groups of signs that have the greatest semantic significance for evaluation of the system-forming and discriminating role of the initial gradation of the reinforcement factor.

Pathophysiological mechanisms of resistive breathing

2021 ◽  
Vol 29 (2) ◽  
pp. 219-226
Author(s):  
Yury Yu. Byalovsky ◽  
Irina S. Rakitina
Keyword(s):  
Conditioned Reflex ◽  
External Respiration ◽  
Resistive Load ◽  
External Resistance ◽  
Conditioned Signal ◽  
Pathophysiological Mechanisms ◽  
Resistive Breathing ◽  
Resistive Loads ◽  
Reinforcement Value ◽  
Respiratory Reflex

AIM: This study aimed to explore the pathophysiological mechanisms of resistive breathing by using a model of a conditioned respiratory reflex to external resistance to breathing. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Inspiratory resistive loads were used 11, 28, 54, and 78 cmAq/l/s to model a conditioned respiratory reflex. External respiration was parametrized on the basis of the analysis of motor and ventilatory outputs. Conditioned signals were pure sounds exceeding the threshold of perception by 10 db at 2000 Hz frequency. All the test persons were divided into two groups (large and small groups) according to the initial reinforcement value. (1) In the large group (37 individuals), the conditioned reflex was formed from 11 cmAq/l/s that was subsequently increased stepwise in the load to 76 cmAq/l/s. (2) In the small group (18 individuals), the initial reinforcements were different gradations of resistive loads, with a stepwise transition to the other parameters of an unconditioned stimulus. The period of the isolated application of a conditioned signal (CS) was 20 s, the interval between signals was not fixed, varying from 2 min to 4 min. Six to eight combinations of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli were used for 1 day of the experiment. RESULTS: The increase in the added respiratory resistance was associated with the pronounced reduction of pulmonary and alveolar ventilation, that is, with the hypoventilation type of resistive load realization. Changes in ventilation during the isolated application of a conditioned signal had an alternative character. In particular, as the reinforcement factor increased, a pronounced shift to hyperventilation was noted. CONCLUSION: The reinforcement value of the conditioned reflex changed stepwise, thereby significantly restructuring the proportion between the effectiveness of the adaptive activity in the realization of external resistance to inspiration (the time of stay under a certain load) and its physiological cost (totalities of the deviations of physiological and energy parameters).

CONDITIONED REFLEX MECHANISMS OF ADAPTATION TO ADDITIONAL BREATHING RESISTANCE

2021 ◽  
pp. 97-105
Author(s):  
Yu.Yu. Byalovskiy ◽  
I.S. Rakitina
Keyword(s):  
Conditioned Reflex ◽  
External Respiration ◽  
Respiratory Resistance ◽  
Conditioned Signal ◽  
Unconditioned Reflex ◽  
Breathing Resistance ◽  
Before And After ◽  
Resistive Loads ◽  
Aversive Behavior ◽  
Respiratory Reflex

The problem of adaptation to additional breathing resistance has recently become more urgent due to the growth of bronchopulmonary diseases. Therefore, there is a natural interest in non-drug strategies compensating resistive breathing in humans. The aim of the study was to assess conditioned reflex changes in the functional state of the subjects under additional breathing resistance. Materials and Methods. The work was carried out on 55 practically healthy subjects of both sexes, aged 18–36. Additional breathing resistance was modeled by inspiratory resistive loads of 40, 60, 70, and 80 % of the maximum intraoral pressure. The conditioned respiratory reflex to resistive respiratory load was developed as a short-delayed conditioned signal with a 30-second period of isolated action. The authors examined behavioral, vegetative, gas and energy indicators of the organism before and after the formation of a conditioned reflex. Results. It was observed that conditioned reflex shifts of physiological parameters in the process of adaptation to additional breathing resistance differ significantly from the corresponding unconditioned reflex changes both in nature and in intensity. Conditioned reflex mechanisms reduce the intensity of shifts in the motor component of the external respiration system, which, apparently, is the main reason to decrease the aversive behavior. Conclusion. Behavioral changes after the formation of a conditioned respiratory reflex to additional respiratory resistance are characterized by a decrease in aversive behavior patterns. The conditioned reflex realization of increasing resistive loads is expressed in a lower physiological cost of adaptation to additional respiratory resistance relative to the unconditioned reflex type of realization. Keywords: adaptation, conditioned respiratory reflex, additional breathing resistance. Проблема приспособления к дополнительному респираторному сопротивлению в последнее время становится все более актуальной в связи с ростом бронхолегочных заболеваний. Поэтому естественен интерес к нелекарственным механизмам компенсации резистивного дыхания человека. Целью исследования являлась оценка условно-рефлекторных изменений функционального состояния испытуемых в условиях дополнительного респираторного сопротивления. Материалы и методы. Работа проведена на 55 практически здоровых испытуемых обоего пола в возрасте от 18 до 36 лет. Дополнительное респираторное сопротивление моделировалось инспираторными резистивными нагрузками величиной 40, 60, 70 и 80 % от максимального внутриротового давления. Условный дыхательный рефлекс на резистивные дыхательные нагрузки вырабатывался по типу короткоотставленного с периодом изолированного действия условного сигнала 30 с. Исследовались поведенческие, вегетативные, газовые и энергетические показатели организма до и после формирования условного рефлекса. Результаты. Показано, что условно-рефлекторные сдвиги физиологических показателей в процессе приспособления к дополнительному респираторному сопротивлению существенно отличаются от соответствующих безусловно-рефлекторных изменений как по характеру, так и по интенсивности. Условно-рефлекторные механизмы уменьшают интенсивность сдвигов моторного компонента системы внешнего дыхания, что, по-видимому, является основной причиной снижения вероятности появления аверсивного поведения. Выводы. Поведенческие изменения после формирования условного дыхательного рефлекса на дополнительное респираторное сопротивление характеризуются снижением вероятности появления аверсивных форм поведения. Условно-рефлекторная реализация возрастающих по интенсивности резистивных нагрузок выражается в меньшей физиологической стоимости приспособления к дополнительному респираторному сопротивлению относительно безусловно-рефлекторного типа реализации. Ключевые слова: приспособление, условный дыхательный рефлекс, дополнительное респираторное сопротивление.

Concurrent Electrodermal and Eyeblink Conditioning With Masked and Unmasked Stimuli

2021 ◽  
Vol 35 (1) ◽  
pp. 35-42
Author(s):  
José Luis Marcos ◽  
Azahara Marcos
Keyword(s):  
Unconditioned Stimulus ◽  
Strong Evidence ◽  
Eyeblink Conditioning ◽  
Noise Burst ◽  
Conditioning Phase ◽  
Contingency Awareness ◽  
Blank Screen ◽  
Neutral Face ◽  
Fearful Face

Abstract. The aim of this study was to determine if contingency awareness between the conditioned (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) is necessary for concurrent electrodermal and eyeblink conditioning to masked stimuli. An angry woman’s face (CS+) and a fearful face (CS−) were presented for 23 milliseconds (ms) and followed by a neutral face as a mask. A 98 dB noise burst (US) was administered 477 ms after CS+ offset to elicit both electrodermal and eyeblink responses. For the unmasking conditioning a 176 ms blank screen was inserted between the CS and the mask. Contingency awareness was assessed using trial-by-trial ratings of US-expectancy in a post-conditioning phase. The results showed acquisition of differential electrodermal and eyeblink conditioning in aware, but not in unaware participants. Acquisition of differential eyeblink conditioning required more trials than electrodermal conditioning. These results provided strong evidence of the causal role of contingency awareness on differential eyeblink and electrodermal conditioning.

The influence of mean shear on Alfvén-internal wave propagation

1976 ◽  
Vol 15 (2) ◽  
pp. 197-222
Author(s):  
R. J. Hartman
Keyword(s):  
Three Dimensional ◽  
Dimensional System ◽  
Linear Wave ◽  
Mean Flow ◽  
Wave Processes ◽  
Initial Value ◽  
Initial Wave ◽  
Wave Phenomena ◽  
Three Dimensional System

This paper uses the general solution of the linearized initial-value problem for an unbounded, exponentially-stratified, perfectly-conducting Couette flow in the presence of a uniform magnetic field to study the development of localized wave-type perturbations to the basic flow. The two-dimensional problem is shown to be stable for all hydrodynamic Richardson numbers JH, positive and negative, and wave packets in this flow are shown to approach, asymptotically, a level in the fluid (the ‘isolation level’) which is a smooth, continuous, function of JH that is well defined for JH < 0 as well as JH > 0. This system exhibits a rich complement of wave phenomena and a variety of mechanisms for the transport of mean flow kinetic and potential energy, via linear wave processes, between widely-separated regions of fluid; this in addition to the usual mechanisms for the absorption of the initial wave energy itself. The appropriate three-dimensional system is discussed, and the role of nonlinearities on the development of localized disturbances is considered.

scholarly journals Leukocyte-type 12-lipoxygenase-deficient mice show impaired ischemic preconditioning-induced cardioprotection

2001 ◽  
Vol 280 (5) ◽  
pp. H1963-H1969 ◽  
Author(s):  
Scott A. Gabel ◽  
Robert E. London ◽  
Colin D. Funk ◽  
Charles Steenbergen ◽  
Elizabeth Murphy
Keyword(s):  
Left Ventricular ◽  
Rate Pressure Product ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
Initial Value ◽  
Triphenyltetrazolium Chloride ◽  
Developed Pressure ◽  
12 Lipoxygenase ◽  
Postischemic Recovery ◽  
Deficient Mice

To investigate the role of 12-lipoxygenase in preconditioning, we examined whether hearts lacking the “leukocyte-type” 12-lipoxygenase (12-LOKO) would be protected by preconditioning. In hearts from wild-type (WT) and 12-LOKO mice, left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP) and 31P NMR were monitored during treatment (±preconditioning) and during global ischemia and reperfusion. Postischemic function (rate-pressure product, percentage of initial value) measured after 20 min of ischemia and 40 min of reperfusion was significantly improved by preconditioning in WT hearts (78 ± 12% in preconditioned vs. 44 ± 7% in nonpreconditioned hearts) but not in 12-LOKO hearts (47 ± 7% in preconditioned vs. 33 ± 10% in nonpreconditioned hearts). Postischemic recovery of phosphocreatine was significantly better in WT preconditioned hearts than in 12-LOKO preconditioned hearts. Preconditioning significantly reduced the fall in intracellular pH during sustained ischemia in both WT and 12-LOKO hearts, suggesting that attenuation of the fall in pH during ischemia can be dissociated from preconditioning-induced protection. Necrosis was assessed after 25 min of ischemia and 2 h of reperfusion using 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride. In WT hearts, preconditioning significantly reduced the area of necrosis (26 ± 4%) compared with nonpreconditioned hearts (62 ± 10%) but not in 12-LOKO hearts (85 ± 3% in preconditioned vs. 63 ± 11% in nonpreconditioned hearts). Preconditioning resulted in a significant increase in 12( S)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid in WT but not in 12-LOKO hearts. These data demonstrate that 12-lipoxygenase is important in preconditioning.

scholarly journals Key bacterial families (Clostridiaceae, Erysipelotrichaceae and Bacteroidaceae) are related to the digestion of protein and energy in dogs

PeerJ ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 5 ◽  
pp. e3019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Emma N. Bermingham ◽  
Paul Maclean ◽  
David G. Thomas ◽  
Nicholas J. Cave ◽  
Wayne Young
Keyword(s):  
Physiological Parameters ◽  
Apparent Digestibility ◽  
Faecal Microbiota ◽  
Microbial Composition ◽  
Meat Diet ◽  
Gross Energy ◽  
Highly Correlated ◽  
Faecal Weight ◽  
Induced Changes

BackgroundMuch of the recent research in companion animal nutrition has focussed on understanding the role of diet on faecal microbiota composition. To date, diet-induced changes in faecal microbiota observed in humans and rodents have been extrapolated to pets in spite of their very different dietary and metabolic requirements. This lack of direct evidence means that the mechanisms by which microbiota influences health in dogs are poorly understood. We hypothesised that changes in faecal microbiota correlate with physiological parameters including apparent macronutrient digestibility.MethodsFifteen adult dogs were assigned to two diet groups, exclusively fed either a premium kibbled diet (kibble;K;n = 8) or a raw red meat diet (meat;M;n = 7) for nine weeks. Apparent digestibility of macronutrients (protein, fat, gross energy and dry matter), faecal weight, faecal health scores, faecal VFA concentrations and faecal microbial composition were determined. Datasets were integrated using mixOmics in R.ResultsFaecal weight and VFA levels were lower and the apparent digestibility of protein and energy were higher in dogs on the meat diet. Diet significantly affected 27 microbial families and 53 genera in the faeces. In particular, the abundances ofBacteriodes,Prevotella,PeptostreptococcusandFaecalibacteriumwere lower in dogs fed the meat diet, whereasFusobacterium,LactobacillusandClostridiumwere all more abundant.DiscussionOur results show clear associations of specific microbial taxa with diet composition. For example, Clostridiaceae, Erysipelotrichaceae and Bacteroidaceae were highly correlated to parameters such as protein and fat digestibility in the dog. By understanding the relationship between faecal microbiota and physiological parameters we will gain better insights into the effects of diet on the nutrition of our pets.

scholarly journals On the role of responses in Pavlovian acquisition

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stefano Ghirlanda ◽  
Magnus Enquist
Keyword(s):  
Unconditioned Stimulus ◽  
Pavlovian Conditioning ◽  
Conditioned Response ◽  
Quantitative Methods ◽  
Eyeblink Conditioning ◽  
Key Pecking ◽  
Lever Pressing

A defining feature of Pavlovian conditioning is that the unconditioned stimulus (US) is delivered whether or not the animal performs a conditioned response (CR). This has lead to the question: Does CR performance play any role in learning? Between the 1930's and 1970's, a consensus emerged that CR acquisition is driven by CS-US experiences, and that CRs play a minimal role, if any. Here we revisit the question and present two new quantitative methods to evaluate whether CRs influence the course of learning. Our results suggest that CRs play an important role in Pavlovian acquisition, in such paradigms as rabbit eyeblink conditioning, pigeon autoshaped key pecking, and rat autoshaped lever pressing and magazine entry.

scholarly journals Psychopathy: cognitive and neural dysfunction

2013 ◽  
Vol 15 (2) ◽  
pp. 181-190 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Antisocial Behavior ◽  
Antisocial Personality Disorder ◽  
Developmental Disorder ◽  
Posterior Cingulate Cortex ◽  
Current Review ◽  
Increased Risk ◽  
Emotional Deficits ◽  
Reinforcement Value ◽  
Neural Dysfunction

Psychopathy is a developmental disorder marked by emotional deficits and an increased risk for antisocial behavior. It is not equivalent to the diagnosis Antisocial Personality Disorder, which concentrates only on the increased risk for antisocial behavior and not a specific cause-ie, the reduced empathy and guilt that constitutes the emotional deficit. The current review considers data from adults with psychopathy with respect to the main cognitive accounts of the disorder that stress either a primary attention deficit or a primary emotion deficit. In addition, the current review considers data regarding the neurobiology of this disorder. Dysfunction within the amygdala's role in reinforcement learning and the role of ventromedial frontal cortex in the representation of reinforcement value is stressed. Data is also presented indicating potential difficulties within parts of temporal and posterior cingulate cortex. Suggestions are made with respect to why these deficits lead to the development of the disorder.

scholarly journals Threat imminence dictates the role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in contextual fear

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Travis D. Goode ◽  
Gillian M. Acca ◽  
Stephen Maren
Keyword(s):  
Unconditioned Stimulus ◽  
Fear Conditioning ◽  
Stria Terminalis ◽  
Conditioning Procedure ◽  
Conditioned Stimuli ◽  
Reversible Inactivation ◽  
Bed Nucleus ◽  
Contextual Fear ◽  
Context Dependent

ABSTRACTPrevious work indicates that the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is involved in defensive freezing to unpredictable Pavlovian conditioned stimuli (Goode et al., 2019). Here we show that the BNST mediates freezing to contexts paired with remote (unpredictable), but not imminent (predictable), footshock. Rats underwent a fear conditioning procedure in which a single footshock unconditioned stimulus (US) was delivered either 1 (imminent) or 9 minutes (remote) after placement in the context; each rat received a total of four conditioning trials over two days. Contexts associated with either imminent or remote USs produced distinct patterns of freezing and shock-induced activity but freezing in each case was context-dependent. Reversible inactivation of the BNST reduced the expression of contextual freezing in the context paired with remote, but not imminent, footshock. Implications of these data are discussed in light of recent conceptualizations of BNST function, as well as for anxiety behaviors.

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