scholarly journals Actually or Potentially Within Reach: The Place of China in New Zealand’s Grand Strategy 1965-1972

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
David Belgrave
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
East Asia ◽  
Grand Strategy ◽  
Active Member ◽  
South East Asia ◽  
Means And Ends ◽  
Defence Policy ◽  
Sources Of Authority ◽  
Day To Day Operations ◽  
The Revolution

<p>In 1965 New Zealand was an active member of alliances designed to contain the People’s Republic of China in South East Asia. Late the previous year, the Defence Council had warned Cabinet that New Zealand could be at war with China and/or Indonesia in six months. Less than seven years later New Zealand recognised China, as Britain and the US military presences were exiting from South East Asia. These events bookend a radical reshaping of New Zealand’s defence policies and its attitude towards China.  The existing scholarship on New Zealand’s Cold War defence policies has underemphasised the role of China in New Zealand’s grand strategy and the scholarship on Sino-New Zealand relations has also largely ignored defence policy. This thesis uses recently released files from the Ministry of Defence to provide new insight into the construction of China as a threat during the mid-1960s and the challenges faced in meeting that perceived threat. New Zealand’s Forward Defence policy was one designed to contain China and Beijing-supported revolutionary groups in South East Asia. This strategy was predicated on active British or American support for containment. SEATO and ANZAM provided the basis of New Zealand war planning and day-to-day operations in Asia respectively. With the British decision to withdraw from South East Asia and the American quagmire in Vietnam, New Zealand had to reassess its position in South East Asia as containment of China was no longer thought possible.  The need for a containment strategy was based upon a conceptualisation of China as a growing and hostile power. This view saw China as eventually developing the means to dominate South East Asia and threaten Australasia directly as Japan had done in 1942. This perception of China changed with the emergence of the Cultural Revolution. New Zealand officials watched from Hong Kong as violence and mass political disorder challenged established sources of authority. They took the view that Mao was in direct command of the revolution and was placing limits on it. The revolution destroyed the notion that China was a growing power bent on external expansion. As Mao moved to dampen the revolution, Beijing moved to re-establish its foreign policy and improve its links with the outside world.  Both the means and ends of New Zealand’s grand strategy changed at the same time. New Zealand and its great power allies abandoned the containment project just as views on China shifted. From the end of the 1960s, New Zealand’s Forward Defence efforts ceased to be focused on the containment of China and moved to achieving much more limited goals. New security arrangements were developed to replace the AMDA, ANZAM, and SEATO pacts. The Five Power Defence Arrangements would provide the basis of New Zealand’s defence commitment to South East Asia with only limited assistance from Britain and without China as a significant threat.  It is in this context that New Zealand made the decision to recognise China. New Zealand Prime Minister Keith Holyoake long maintained the view that the PRC should enter the United Nations and be recognised by New Zealand, provided the position of Taiwan was preserved. Once the effort to keep Taiwan in the UN was lost, New Zealand moved slowly toward recognition. However, it would take the election of the Third Labour Government for recognition to occur. This move was part of an international trend towards official relations with Beijing, but for New Zealand, the shift was greater as Wellington had moved from seeing China as a growing military threat to a state with which New Zealand could have an official dialogue.</p>

scholarly journals Actually or Potentially Within Reach: The Place of China in New Zealand’s Grand Strategy 1965-1972

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
David Belgrave
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
East Asia ◽  
Grand Strategy ◽  
Active Member ◽  
South East Asia ◽  
Means And Ends ◽  
Defence Policy ◽  
Sources Of Authority ◽  
Day To Day Operations ◽  
The Revolution

<p>In 1965 New Zealand was an active member of alliances designed to contain the People’s Republic of China in South East Asia. Late the previous year, the Defence Council had warned Cabinet that New Zealand could be at war with China and/or Indonesia in six months. Less than seven years later New Zealand recognised China, as Britain and the US military presences were exiting from South East Asia. These events bookend a radical reshaping of New Zealand’s defence policies and its attitude towards China.  The existing scholarship on New Zealand’s Cold War defence policies has underemphasised the role of China in New Zealand’s grand strategy and the scholarship on Sino-New Zealand relations has also largely ignored defence policy. This thesis uses recently released files from the Ministry of Defence to provide new insight into the construction of China as a threat during the mid-1960s and the challenges faced in meeting that perceived threat. New Zealand’s Forward Defence policy was one designed to contain China and Beijing-supported revolutionary groups in South East Asia. This strategy was predicated on active British or American support for containment. SEATO and ANZAM provided the basis of New Zealand war planning and day-to-day operations in Asia respectively. With the British decision to withdraw from South East Asia and the American quagmire in Vietnam, New Zealand had to reassess its position in South East Asia as containment of China was no longer thought possible.  The need for a containment strategy was based upon a conceptualisation of China as a growing and hostile power. This view saw China as eventually developing the means to dominate South East Asia and threaten Australasia directly as Japan had done in 1942. This perception of China changed with the emergence of the Cultural Revolution. New Zealand officials watched from Hong Kong as violence and mass political disorder challenged established sources of authority. They took the view that Mao was in direct command of the revolution and was placing limits on it. The revolution destroyed the notion that China was a growing power bent on external expansion. As Mao moved to dampen the revolution, Beijing moved to re-establish its foreign policy and improve its links with the outside world.  Both the means and ends of New Zealand’s grand strategy changed at the same time. New Zealand and its great power allies abandoned the containment project just as views on China shifted. From the end of the 1960s, New Zealand’s Forward Defence efforts ceased to be focused on the containment of China and moved to achieving much more limited goals. New security arrangements were developed to replace the AMDA, ANZAM, and SEATO pacts. The Five Power Defence Arrangements would provide the basis of New Zealand’s defence commitment to South East Asia with only limited assistance from Britain and without China as a significant threat.  It is in this context that New Zealand made the decision to recognise China. New Zealand Prime Minister Keith Holyoake long maintained the view that the PRC should enter the United Nations and be recognised by New Zealand, provided the position of Taiwan was preserved. Once the effort to keep Taiwan in the UN was lost, New Zealand moved slowly toward recognition. However, it would take the election of the Third Labour Government for recognition to occur. This move was part of an international trend towards official relations with Beijing, but for New Zealand, the shift was greater as Wellington had moved from seeing China as a growing military threat to a state with which New Zealand could have an official dialogue.</p>

The scorpion-tailed orb-weaving spiders (Araneae, Araneidae, Arachnura) in Australia and New Zealand

Zootaxa ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 4706 (1) ◽  
pp. 147-170
Author(s):  
PEDRO DE S. CASTANHEIRA ◽  
RAPHAEL K. DIDHAM ◽  
COR J. VINK ◽  
VOLKER W. FRAMENAU
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
East Asia ◽  
Papua New Guinea ◽  
New Guinea ◽  
South East Asia ◽  
Pacific Region ◽  
Single Female ◽  
South Eastern ◽  
Nomen Dubium ◽  
The Pacific

The scorpion-tailed orb-weaving spiders in the genus Arachnura Vinson, 1863 (Araneidae Clerck, 1757) are revised for Australia and New Zealand. Arachnura higginsii (L. Koch, 1872) only occurs in Australia and A. feredayi (L. Koch, 1872) only in New Zealand. A single female collected in south-eastern Queensland (Australia) is here tentatively identified as A. melanura Simon, 1867, but it is doubtful that this species has established in Australia. Two juveniles from northern Queensland do not conform to the diagnoses of any of the above species and are illustrated pending a more thorough revision of the genus in South-East Asia and the Pacific region. An unidentified female from Westport (New Zealand) does not conform to the diagnoses of A. feredayi and A. higginsii, but is not described due to its poor preservation status. Arachnura caudatella Roewer, 1942 (replacement name for Epeira caudata Bradley, 1876), originally described from Hall Sound (Papua New Guinea) and repeatedly catalogued for Australia, is considered a nomen dubium. 

scholarly journals EDITORIAL

2001 ◽  
Vol 6 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-2
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
East Asia ◽  
South Pacific ◽  
The Philippines ◽  
Music Technology ◽  
South East Asia ◽  
The South

The collection of papers in this issue of Organised Sound results from a call for material focused on the theme of music technology in Australasia (New Zealand, Australia and neighbouring Islands of the South Pacific) and South East Asia (Brunei, Burma, Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam).

scholarly journals Towards American Dependence: New Zealand's Developing Politico-Military Relations with the United States of America, 1919-1942

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Richard Maximilian Luppi
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
New Zealand ◽  
The United States ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Western Pacific ◽  
Grand Strategy ◽  
Command Area ◽  
Defence Policy ◽  
Military Relations ◽  
The Western Pacific

<p>The purpose of this study is to describe and explain a crucial transition in New Zealand's defence policy the outcome of which was that, instead of relying on the United Kingdom (and in particular the Royal Navy) for her Pacific security, New Zealand began to rely on the military and naval power of the United States in the Western Pacific. The study therefore focuses on New Zealand's developing politico-military relations with the United States in the context of the informal and then formal Anglo-American alliance between 1919 and 1942. There are three parts. The first investigates the events which led up to New Zealand's abrupt reorientation in 1940 from relying on Britain for her Pacific security to relying on the United States. In the course of this, British and American defence planning and co-operation for a possible war in the Pacific between 1919 and 1939 are examined in some detail. The second part deals with New Zealand's efforts to secure an American naval shield in the course of British and American negotiations to develop a combined British-Dutch-American defence against Japan between 1940 and 1942. The final part goes into the reasons for the change of defence policy and concludes that: 1. The fundamental cause was the British failure in 1919 and the immediately following years to challenge Japan for naval supremacy in the Western Pacific by establishing a Far Eastern Fleet. It was a consequence of this that in June 1940 Britain tried to get the United States to assume a major strategic responsibility in the Western Pacific by undertaking to dispatch an American fleet to Singapore if Japan joined in the war whch had already broken out with Germany and Italy. 2. Australia and New Zealand, accepting the British grand strategy, prepared their local defences between October 1940 and March 1941 on the assumption that America would keep in step and send a fleet to Singapore. 3. Despite the failure of Britain's grand strategy between June 1940 and March 1941, America did assume strategic responsibility, particularly for the naval defence of New Zealand, in March 1941. In turn New Zealand, unlike Britain and Australia, consistently tried to meet the American point of view regarding a combined British-Dutch-American Pacific defence plan. This was part of her continuing effort to secure an American naval shield in the event of war with Japan. 4. Britain and America were unable to agree on a combined British-Dutch-American defence plan before Japan entered the war in December 1941. This delayed the final realization of New Zealand's goal, pursued since October 1940, of gaining an American naval shield. The establishment of the ANZAC unified Pacific command area in February 1942 saw this goal at long last attained.</p>

scholarly journals IYCr outcome in SE Asia

2014 ◽  
Vol 70 (a1) ◽  
pp. C1292-C1292
Author(s):  
Jagadese Vittal
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
Young People ◽  
East Asia ◽  
The Other ◽  
South East Asia ◽  
Asian Countries ◽  
Se Asia

Crystallography has been extensively practiced in a number of Asian countries such as India, China, Japan, S. Korea, Taiwan, Australia, New Zealand and Singapore, and to a lesser extent in Malaysia and Thailand for decades, but not in many parts of South East Asia. The International Year of Crystallography (IYCr 2014) provided an opportunity to reach out some of these countries to initiate or intensify the crystallographic activities in terms of workshops, conferences, crystal growing competition, etc. As a part of this initiative, the IUCr with the help of the Asian Crystallographic Association contacted various academicians and researchers in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and Fiji to increase the awareness of the science of crystallography through various activities, to promote education and research in crystallography and to inspire young people through hand-on demonstration in school, among the activities planned in 2014. The speaker will collate the details of these activities and present in his talk. He will also discuss details of the Crystal Growing Challenge in Singapore among the other activities planned to celebrate IYCr 2014 in Singapore.

The ‘Children of the Sun’ and Central America

Antiquity ◽  
1928 ◽  
Vol 2 (6) ◽  
pp. 161-167 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eric Thompson
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
East Asia ◽  
Central America ◽  
Easter Island ◽  
South East Asia ◽  
The Sun ◽  
Natural Death

The theory that American aboriginal civilization was derived from south-east Asia and indirectly from Egypt has received such wide publicity that it is no longer possible to dismiss it lvithout refutation and wait for it to die a natural death. Such was the policy followed when the extravagances of Lord Kingsborough claiming that the inhabitants of Central America were the lost ten tribes first saw the light. Le Plongeon's fantastic claims too had their hour and then passed into the limbo of lost causes. Other heads of this hydra, peopling Central America from the lost continent of Atlantis, from Babylonia, Africa, New Zealand, Easter Island, and in fact from nearly every quarter of the globe, were not lopped off but left to wither away from lack of that blood, so necessary to this type of hydra–reasoned argument and proof.

Phylogeny of the Hebe Complex (Scrophulariaceae: Veroniceae)

1993 ◽  
Vol 6 (5) ◽  
pp. 457 ◽  
Author(s):  
PJ Garnock-Jones
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
South America ◽  
East Asia ◽  
Cladistic Analysis ◽  
New Guinea ◽  
South East Asia ◽  
New Combinations ◽  
Vegetation Types ◽  
Dispersal Events ◽  
Occurrence Of Species

The southern segregates of Veronica (Hebe, Parahebe, Chionohebe, Dementia, and Detzneria) form a monophyletic assemblage of c. 144 species found in New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand, Rapa, and South America. Most of the species occur in New Zealand, where Hebe is the largest genus and a characteristic member of many vegetation types. Cladistic analysis of the Hebe complex, based on 45 characters and 22 terminal taxa, indicates that: (1) Hebe is monophyletic if Hebe 'Paniculatae' is excluded and H. formosa is included; (2) Parahebe is paraphyletic; (3) Chionohebe is monophyletic, but is part of a larger clade which includes alpine Parahebe and possibly the monotypic Detzneria; (4) Hebe 'Paniculatae', Derwentia, and New Guinea Parahebe are monophyletic basal groups in the complex. According to this study, recognition of monophyletic genera would require six genera in the complex, supporting the recognition of Derwentia and separation of Hebe 'Paniculatae' from Hebe. Leonohebe Heads is considered polyphyletic and is not accepted; new combinations are provided for two species of Leonohebe with no name at species rank in Hebe. Competing biogeographic hypotheses have implied (1) a Gondwanan origin, or (2) migration from South-east Asia via New Guinea. An origin in Australasia from Asian ancestors best explains the topology of the basal parts of the cladogram, but at least seven dispersal events from New Zealand are postulated to explain the occurrence of species of Hebe in South America and Rapa and Parahebe, Hebe, and Chionohebe in Australia. An hypothesis which did not allow dispersal would require that nearly all the evolution in the complex occurred before the Tertiary, and hardly any since.

scholarly journals Phylogeny of the fern family Aspleniaceae in Australasia and the south-western Pacific

2014 ◽  
Vol 27 (6) ◽  
pp. 355 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel J. Ohlsen ◽  
Leon R. Perrie ◽  
Lara D. Shepherd ◽  
Patrick J. Brownsey ◽  
Michael J. Bayly
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
East Asia ◽  
Phylogenetic Analyses ◽  
Western Pacific ◽  
South East Asia ◽  
The South ◽  
Widespread Species ◽  
Species Complexes ◽  
The Family

Aspleniaceae is one of the largest fern families. It is species-rich in Australasia and the south-western Pacific (ASWP), where approximately 115 species occur. In the current study, the chloroplast regions rbcL, trnL–trnF and rps4–trnS were sequenced for 100 Aspleniaceae samples from ASWP. These data were combined with published sequences for species from New Zealand and other regions for phylogenetic analyses. Species of Aspleniaceae from ASWP were placed in six of the eight previously identified inter-continental clades. The majority of species from ASWP were placed in two of these clades, with the remaining four clades each being represented by three or fewer species. Strong biogeographic affinities with South-east Asia were observed and immigration, rather than local radiations of endemic taxa, appears to have made a more important contribution to patterns of diversity in ASWP. This study supports the current taxonomic practice of recognising two genera, Asplenium L. and Hymenasplenium Hayata, in Aspleniaceae, and identifies future taxonomic work required for the family in this region, including potential synonymising of species, and revision of species complexes or widespread species that are demonstrably non-monophyletic.

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