UNPUBLISHED, REJECTED MANUSCRIPT NOT TO BE RESUBMITTED: Infection and ideology- Perceived vulnerability to disease predicts political conservatism

The World ◽

Political Conservatism ◽

Political Right

Recent research on the behavioral immune system suggests that perceived vulnerability to disease is associated with greater ingroup preference, conformity, and support for established cultural practices. However, little of this research has looked at the implications of perceived vulnerability to disease for an orientation linked to many of the above outcomes: ideology. In two studies, we test the hypothesis that perceived vulnerability to disease should be associated with greater political conservatism. In Study 1, we find a relationship between perceived vulnerability to disease and increases in conservatism over time. In Study 2, we use data from the World Values Survey to demonstrate that perceived vulnerability to disease predicts a stronger preference for the political right in a large sample of respondents from a wide variety of nations. Together, these results suggest that the consequences of the behavioral immune system may extend to abstract identifications like ideology.

The Role of Age and Gender in Perceived Vulnerability to Infectious Diseases

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph17020485 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 17 (2) ◽

pp. 485 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Amelia Díaz ◽

Ángela Beleña ◽

Jesús Zueco

Keyword(s):

Immune System ◽

Age Groups ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Age And Gender ◽

Perceived Vulnerability ◽

Biological Immune System ◽

And Gender ◽

System Variables

Background: The study of the immune system has been approached using two separate paths, the biological immune system and the behavioral immune system. Recently, Gangestad and Grebe proposed a unique integrated compensatory immune system, where both systems work together and one of them could compensate for the other when necessary. However, few studies have confirmed the existence of this integrated compensatory immune system. Our study represents an attempt to explore the existence of this unique immune system, investigating if the behavioral immune system variables increase when the biological immune system weakens with age. Material and Methods. The cross-sectional design study was made up of a final sample of 1108 participants (45.2% men and 54.2 women) aged 18–64 years. The younger group (18–21 years) was made up of students, whilst the older groups (22 to 64 years) were composed by their relatives and acquaintances, following the snow ball process. The participants completed the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Questionnaire that assesses perceived infectability and germ aversion. Correlations, analyses of variance (ANOVAs), and independent group comparisons were performed. These analyses showed the relationships between the variables studied, the effects of age and gender in perceived infectability and germ aversion, and the differences that perceived infectability and germ aversion presented in different age-groups separated by gender. Results: A pattern emerged where germ aversion increases as both men and women get older, but perceived infectability decreases up to the age of 50, and then it increases in women from that age onward. Gender differences are only significant in younger participants, with women having higher scores than men in both variables. Conclusion: The results partially support the existence of a unique integrated compensatory biological/behavioral immune system.

Behavioral Immune System Responses to Coronavirus: A Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Explanation of Conformity, Warmth Toward Others and Attitudes Toward Lockdown

Frontiers in Psychology ◽

10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566237 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 11 ◽

Author(s):

Alison M. Bacon ◽

Philip J. Corr

Keyword(s):

United Kingdom ◽

Immune System ◽

Social Norms ◽

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory ◽

Perceived Vulnerability ◽

Perceived Vulnerability To Disease

Sensitivity Theory ◽

Reinforcement Sensitivity ◽

Approach Behaviors ◽

Behavioral immune system (BIS) describes psychological mechanisms that detect cues to infectious pathogens in the immediate environment, trigger disease-relevant responses and facilitate behavioral avoidance/escape. BIS activation elicits a perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) which can result in conformity with social norms. However, a response to superficial cues can result in aversive responses to people that pose no actual threat, leading to an aversion to unfamiliar others, and likelihood of prejudice. Pathogen-neutralizing behaviors, therefore, have implications for social interaction as well as illness behaviors and responses to health communications. In this study, we investigate how PVD influences conformity, attitudes to other people and to lockdown regulations through the lens of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). RST describes personality in terms of biologically-driven approach and avoidance motivations which support personal goals. Participants from the United Kingdom public (N = 605) completed an RST personality questionnaire and then read either (a) coronavirus morbidity-mortality statistics and current United Kingdom government lifestyle regulations, (b) just the regulations (as presented in most government publicity materials), or (c) no information at all. They all completed the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease scale to assess BIS-relevant Germ Aversion and Perceived Infectability, followed by questions measuring social conformity, warmth toward others and attitudes toward lockdown measures. Significantly lower PVD scores were observed in the no-information condition, with the other conditions showing no difference. In terms of RST, approach behaviors related to goal-drive persistence work alongside fear in explaining conformity to social norms. Reward related approach behaviors partially explained warmth toward others, indicating that social rewards gained through interaction continue to be strong drivers of behavior. We found no role for RST traits in attitudes toward lockdown. Overall, coronavirus-related behavior is not driven purely by fear, but also by social and/or protection goals regulated by approach motivation. This study presents new insights into public perceptions of coronavirus and government regulated lifestyle restrictions, helping to explain social behaviors in terms of biologically driven mechanisms. Such understanding is vital if we are to successfully motivate public behavior to constrain spread of the virus.

Testing the Disgust-Based Mechanism of Homonegative Attitudes in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic

Frontiers in Psychology ◽

10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647881 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 ◽

Author(s):

Aleksandra Szymkow ◽

Natalia Frankowska ◽

Katarzyna Galasinska

Keyword(s):

System Theory ◽

Immune System ◽

Defense Mechanisms ◽

Negative Attitudes ◽

Perceived Vulnerability ◽

Perceived Vulnerability To Disease

Functional Flexibility ◽

Sexual Disgust ◽

Negative attitudes and stigmatization can originate from the perception of a disease-related threat. Following the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is often suggested that incidents of discriminatory behavior are the result of defense mechanisms aimed at avoiding pathogens. According to the behavioral immune system theory, people are motivated to distance themselves from individuals who show signs of infection, or who are only heuristically associated with a disease, primarily because of the disgust they evoke. In this paper we focus on negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians who are among social groups that have been persistently framed as “unclean.” In our correlational study (N = 500 heterosexual participants; Polish sample data collected during the first COVID-19 lockdown in Poland, in March/April 2020) we tested moderation models derived from the behavioral immune system theory. Specifically, we investigated whether perceived vulnerability to disease and perceived threat of contracting COVID-19 moderate the relation between disgust and homonegativity. We found that sexual disgust (but not pathogen nor moral disgust) predicted homonegative attitudes. This effect was stronger for participants expressing higher levels of perceived vulnerability to disease but was not dependent on the perception of the COVID-19 threat. The results reaffirm previous evidence indicating a pivotal role of disgust in disease-avoidance mechanisms. They also point to functional flexibility of the behavioral immune system by demonstrating the moderating role of perceived vulnerability to disease in shaping homonegative attitudes. Finally, they show that the threat of COVID-19 does not strengthen the relationship between disgust and homonegativity.

Behavioral immune system linked to responses to the threat of COVID-19

10.31234/osf.io/6dq3g ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Anastasia Makhanova ◽

Melissa A. Shepherd

Keyword(s):

Immune System ◽

Infectious Diseases ◽

Grocery Shopping ◽

Psychological Processes ◽

Perceived Vulnerability ◽

Face To Face ◽

Pathogen Avoidance ◽

Big 5 Personality

People possess psychological processes that help them avoid pathogens, which is particularly important when novel infectious diseases (e.g., COVID-19) spread through the population. Across two studies we examined whether trait pathogen avoidance (operationalized as perceived vulnerability to disease; PVD) was linked with responses to COVID-19 and preventative behaviors. In Study 1, PVD was positively associated with stronger reactions to the threat of COVID-19, including increased anxiety, perceptions that people should alter their typical behavior, as well as reported importance of engaging in proactive and social distancing behaviors. In Study 2, PVD was again associated with increased anxiety, as well as more vigilant behavior when grocery shopping, fewer trips to the store, and fewer face-to-face interactions. These associations remained significant when controlling for the Big-5 personality traits. Although the two subscales of PVD (germ aversion and perceived infectability) were often parallel predictors, several differences between the subscales emerged. Germ aversion may be more associated with behaviors whereas perceived infectability with vigilance.

Misguided Ancients

10.1093/oso/9780197579237.003.0006 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 79-94

Author(s):

Kathleen Wellman

Keyword(s):

Public Sphere ◽

Religious Right ◽

Family Values ◽

The Political ◽

The Public ◽

The Family ◽

The World ◽

Moral Arguments ◽

The Public Sphere ◽

Political Right

Although the ancient Greeks and Romans have long been appreciated as foundations for Western civilization, for these textbooks, the Greeks’ philosophy, gods, and immorality tar them as godless humanists. Nonetheless, the Greeks and the Romans allow these curricula to introduce several key social, political, and moral arguments. They assess whether ancient civilizations implemented the “family values” of the political right as it emerged in the 1970s. Thus the Greeks were commendable in excluding women from the public sphere and the Romans for their strong patriarchal families. But Rome fell when it failed to maintain family values. These textbooks disparage the Romans to downplay their influence on the American founding. Furthermore, the rise of Islam reveals the presence of Satan in the world. These curricula’s repudiation of the classical tradition reflects not only contemporary concerns of the religious right but also American anti-intellectualism.

Activation of the Behavioral Immune System: Putting the Brakes on Affiliation

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin ◽

10.1177/0146167217736046 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 44 (2) ◽

pp. 224-237 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Natsumi Sawada ◽

Emilie Auger ◽

John E. Lydon

Keyword(s):

Immune System ◽

Social Interactions ◽

Attachment Style ◽

Need To Belong ◽

Affiliative Behavior ◽

Avoidance Motivation ◽

Sources Of Infection ◽

Zero Acquaintance

Evolutionary psychologists propose that humans evolved a first line of defense against pathogens: the behavioral immune system (BIS). The BIS is thought to be functionally flexible such that the likelihood and magnitude of BIS activation depends on the individual’s perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD). Because conspecifics are sources of infection, the BIS has implications for affiliation. By priming and measuring chronic levels of PVD, we examined PVD’s relation to affiliation in zero-acquaintance situations in the laboratory, online, and during speed-dating events. Elevated BIS activation was associated with decreased attraction and affiliative behavior in situations that varied in the trade-off between social reward and potential risk of infection. These results were not due to attachment style, personality traits, or disgust sensitivity. This suggests that in social interactions, approach motivation associated with the need to belong may be weighed against avoidance motivation associated with the need to protect the self from disease.

Extending the Behavioral Immune System to Political Psychology: Are Political Conservatism and Disgust Sensitivity Really Related?

Evolutionary Psychology ◽

10.1177/147470491000800406 ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 8 (4) ◽

pp. 147470491000800 ◽

Cited By ~ 57

Author(s):

Joshua M. Tybur ◽

Leslie A. Merriman ◽

Ann E. Caldwell Hooper ◽

Melissa M. McDonald ◽

Carlos David Navarrete

Keyword(s):

Immune System ◽

Political Psychology ◽

Disgust Sensitivity ◽

Political Conservatism

Authoritarianism in the Public

Political Science ◽

10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0236 ◽

2018 ◽

Author(s):

Elizabeth Suhay ◽

Brianna Maurer

Keyword(s):

Political Attitudes ◽

Civil Liberties ◽

Personality Characteristic ◽

The Political ◽

High Group ◽

Authoritarian Personality ◽

The Public ◽

Anti Semitism ◽

The World ◽

Political Right

The study of the “authoritarian personality” began in Europe with the rise of Hitler as an effort to understand why so many seemingly ordinary Germans (and others) were willing to lend their support to an obviously anti-democratic and racist leader. Research on authoritarianism continues in this vein today, although it is now used throughout the world to explain why many people oppose democratic institutions, support authoritarian leaders, and hold prejudiced attitudes. The study of authoritarianism is as popular as it is controversial, with scholars disagreeing over whether it is a personality characteristic or a set of attitudes, how it develops, whether it occurs only on the political right or on the left as well, and how it is best measured, among other debates. Even so, scholars generally agree on the characteristics associated with authoritarianism: those who exhibit authoritarianism tend to be high group identifiers, submissive to in-group authorities, traditional and conforming, and aggressive toward those who either defy accepted norms or are members of outgroups. As has been evident for decades, authoritarianism is closely associated with all manner of highly consequential social and political attitudes, including anti-Semitism, racism, xenophobia, and homophobia, opposition to civil liberties and rights, support for war, and, of course, support for leaders who govern in an authoritarian manner.

Estimating and examining the replicability of belief system networks

10.31234/osf.io/nm52q ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Mark John Brandt

Keyword(s):

Political System ◽

Belief Systems ◽

Belief System ◽

System Structure ◽

Centrality Measures ◽

The Political ◽

World Values Survey ◽

Political Systems ◽

System P ◽

The World

Belief system structure can be investigated by estimating belief systems as networks of interacting political attitudes, but we do not know if these estimates are replicable. In a sample of 31 countries from the World Values Survey (N = 52,826), I find that country’s belief system networks are relatively replicable in terms of connectivity, proportion of positive edges, some centrality measures (e.g., expected influence), and the estimates of individual edges. Betweenness, closeness, and strength centrality estimates are more unstable. Belief system networks estimated with smaller samples or in countries with more unstable political systems tend to be less replicable than networks estimated with larger samples in stable political systems. Although these analyses are restricted to the items available in the World Values Survey, they show that belief system networks can be replicable, but that this replicability is related to features of the study design and the political system.

Trust in Science, Perceived Vulnerability to Disease, and Adherence to Pharmacological and Non-pharmacological COVID-19 Recommendations

Frontiers in Psychology ◽

10.3389/fpsyg.2021.664554 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 ◽

Author(s):

Ivana Hromatko ◽

Mirjana Tonković ◽

Andrea Vranic

Keyword(s):

Threat Appraisal ◽

Perceived Vulnerability ◽

Response Efficacy ◽

Psychological Mechanisms ◽

Personal Risk ◽

Preventative Measures ◽

Behavioral Avoidance ◽

Second Wave

Protection motivation theory (PMT) is a theoretical framework informative for understanding behavioral intentions and choices during exceptional and uncommon circumstances, such as a pandemic of respiratory infectious disease. PMT postulates both the threat appraisal and the coping appraisal as predictors of health behaviors. Recent advances in the field of behavioral immune system (BIS) research suggest that humans are equipped with a set of psychological adaptations enabling them to detect the disease-threat and activate behavioral avoidance of pathogens. The present study, set within PMT framework and informed by the BIS research, aimed to explain and predict voluntary adherence to COVID-19 guidelines by perceived personal risk and vulnerability to disease as threat appraisal variables, and trust in science as the response efficacy element of coping appraisal. Gender, age, belief in the second wave, perceived personal risk, germ aversion, and trust in science were all found to be significant positive predictors of the intent to adhere to non-pharmacological COVID-19 recommendations, with the belief in the second wave, germ aversion, and trust in science being the most important ones. On the other hand, only the belief in the second wave and trust in science were significant positive predictors of the intent to adhere to pharmacological COVID-19 recommendations (i.e., to vaccinate). Interventions aimed at enhancing preventative measures adherence should take into account that the psychological mechanisms underlying adherence to these two types of recommendations are not identical.