Neural correlates and determinants of approach-avoidance conflict in the prelimbic prefrontal cortex

The recollection of environmental cues associated with threat or reward allows animals to select the most appropriate behavioral responses. Neurons in the prelimbic cortex (PL) respond to both threat- and reward-associated cues. However, it remains unknown whether PL regulates threat-avoidance vs. reward-approaching responses when an animals' decision depends on previously associated memories. Using a conflict model in which male Long-Evans rats retrieve memories of shock- and food-paired cues, we observed two distinct phenotypes during conflict: i) rats that continued to press a lever for food (Pressers); and ii) rats that exhibited a complete suppression in food seeking (Non-pressers). Single-unit recordings revealed that increased risk-taking behavior in Pressers is associated with persistent food-cue responses in PL, and reduced spontaneous activity in PL glutamatergic (PLGLUT) neurons during conflict. Activating PLGLUT neurons in Pressers attenuated food-seeking responses in a neutral context, whereas inhibiting PLGLUT neurons in Non-pressers reduced defensive responses and increased food approaching during conflict. Our results establish a causal role for PLGLUT neurons in mediating individual variability in memory-based risky decision making by regulating threat-avoidance vs. reward-approach behaviors.

Pair-bonding leads to convergence in approach behavior to conspecific vocalizations in California mice (Peromyscus californicus)

Pair-bonding allows for division of labor across behavioral tasks such as protecting a territory, caring for pups or foraging for food. However, how these labor divisions are determined, whether they are simply intrinsic differences in the individual’s behavior or a coordinated behavioral response by the pair, remains unknown. We used the monogamous, biparental and territorial California mouse (Peromyscus californicus) to study how behavioral approach to an aggressive vocal stimulus in a novel environment was affected by pair-bonding. Using a three-chambered vocal playback paradigm, we first measured the amount of time individuals spent in close proximity to aggressive bark vocalizations. We found that animals could be categorized as either approachers or avoiders. We then paired individuals based on their initial approach behavior to an opposite sex individual who displayed either similar or different approach behaviors. These pairs were then retested for approach behavior as a dyad 10–11 days post-pairing. This test found that pairs showed convergence in their behavioral responses, such that pairs who were mismatched in their approach behaviors became more similar, and pairs that were matched remained so. Finally, we analyzed the ultrasonic vocalizations (USV) produced and found that pairs produced significantly more USVs than individuals. Importantly, increased USV production correlated with increasing behavioral convergence of pairs. Taken together, this study shows that pair-bonded animals alter their approach behaviors to coordinate their response with their partner and that vocal communication may play a role in coordinating these behavioral responses. Overall, our findings indicate that pair-bonding generates an emergent property in pairs, adjusting their combined approach behavior towards a new aggressive stimulus representing a potential challenge to the bonded pair. Such findings may be broadly important for social bonding in other social systems.

The pattern of force produced during approach-avoidance movements is independent of emotional valence

Movements that include pushing away and pulling towards oneself are important avoidance and approach behaviors, respectively. Previous research has demonstrated that reaction times are more rapid when approach-like movements are undertaken in response to pleasant emotional stimuli and when avoidant movements are carried out in response to unpleasant emotional stimuli. However, few studies have directly investigated the forces applied during self-referenced approach or avoidance movements. Here we measured the sustained forces of pushing and pulling in response to emotional images. The images presented varied in ratings of emotional arousal (i.e., relaxing versus exciting) and valence (positive valence, or pleasant, versus negative valence, or unpleasant). Our results replicate previous findings that documented force produced in response to unpleasant images. Our findings also revealed that, in contrast to their impact on reaction times, the effects of emotional stimuli on the sustained forces associated with approach and avoidance responses are independent of the direction of movement.

Impact of Sustainable Cultural Contact, Natural Atmospherics, and Risk Perception on Rural Destination Involvement and Traveler Behavior in Inner Mongolia

Rural tourism is emerging in the tourism industry; however, little is known about traveler behaviors at rural destinations. This study explored the role of cultural contact, natural atmospherics, and risk perception in generating destination involvement and approach behaviors for rural tourism in Inner Mongolia. A quantitative data analysis was used to obtain the research objective. Our findings showed that cultural contact and natural atmospherics significantly increased traveler destination involvement and their approach behaviors. Cultural contact included a stronger impact on destination involvement than natural atmospherics. In contrast, natural atmospherics contained a stronger influence on approach behaviors than cultural contact. In addition, rural traveler risk perception moderated the magnitude of the effect of cultural contact on approach behaviors. Overall, the proposed theoretical framework encompassed a sufficient level of anticipation power for involvement and approach behaviors. Our findings can be helpful for inventing rural tourism development strategies in Inner Mongolia.

Neural correlates and determinants of approach-avoidance conflict in the prelimbic prefrontal cortex

The recollection of environmental cues associated with threat or reward allows animals to select the most appropriate behavioral responses. Neurons in the prelimbic cortex (PL) respond to both threat- and reward-associated cues. However, it remains unknown whether PL regulates threat-avoidance vs. reward-approaching responses when an animal decision depends on previously associated memories. Using a conflict model in which rats retrieve memories of shock- and food-paired cues, we observed two distinct phenotypes during conflict: i) rats that continued to press a lever for food (Pressers); and ii) rats that exhibited a complete suppression in food seeking (Non-Pressers). Single-unit recordings revealed that increased risk-taking behavior in Pressers is associated with persistent food-cue responses in PL, and reduced spontaneous activity in PL glutamatergic (PLGLUT) neurons during conflict. Activating PLGLUT neurons in Pressers attenuated food-seeking responses in a neutral context, whereas inhibiting PLGLUT neurons in Non-Pressers reduced defensive responses and increased food approaching during conflict. Our results establish a causal role for PLGLUT neurons in mediating individual variability in memory-based risky decision making by regulating threat-avoidance vs. reward-approach behaviors.

Conflict Test Battery for Studying the Act of Facing Threats in Pursuit of Rewards

Survival depends on the ability of animals to avoid threats and approach rewards. Traditionally, these two opposing motivational systems have been studied separately. In nature, however, they regularly compete for the control of behavior. When threat- and reward-eliciting stimuli (learned or unlearned) occur simultaneously, a motivational conflict emerges that challenges individuals to weigh available options and execute a single behavioral response (avoid or approach). Most previous animal models using approach/avoidance conflicts have often focused on the ability to avoid threats by forgoing or delaying the opportunity to obtain rewards. In contrast, behavioral tasks designed to capitalize on the ability to actively choose to execute approach behaviors despite threats are scarce. Thus, we developed a behavioral test battery composed of three conflict tasks to directly study rats confronting threats to obtain rewards guided by innate and conditioned cues. One conflict task involves crossing a potentially electrified grid to obtain food on the opposite end of a straight alley, the second task is based on the step-down threat avoidance paradigm, and the third one is a modified version of the open field test. We used diazepam to pharmacologically validate conflict behaviors in our tasks. We found that, regardless of whether competing stimuli were conditioned or innate, a low diazepam dose decreased risk assessment and facilitated taking action to obtain rewards in the face of threats during conflict, without affecting choice behavior when there was no conflict involved. Using this pharmacologically validated test battery of ethologically designed innate/learned conflict tasks could help understand the fundamental brain mechanisms underlying the ability to confront threats to achieve goals.

Pictures of social interaction prompt a sustained increase of the smile expression and induce sociability

Viewing pictures of social interaction can facilitate approach behaviors. We conducted two studies to investigate if social interaction cues, empathy, and/or social touch modulate facial electromyographic (EMG) reactivity (as evidenced by the zygomaticus major and corrugator supercilii muscles) and mood states. We presented bonding pictures (depicting social interaction) and control pictures (without social interaction) while continuously recording zygomatic and corrugator EMG activities. In both studies, picture blocks were paired by valence and arousal. All participants were college students. In study 1, participants (n = 80, 47 women) read relevant priming texts immediately before viewing each block of 14 pictures. In study 2, participants did not read (n = 82, 63 women) priming texts before each block of 28 pictures. In study 1 and study 2, participants also completed mood states questionnaires to assess sociability and altruistic behavior. Empathy and social touch frequency were also assessed by self-reported questionnaires. In both studies, bonding pictures increased the zygomatic activity and the self-reported sociability feeling compared to control pictures. Only in study 2, bonding pictures decreased median corrugator activity compared to control pictures. We concluded that social interaction cues were efficient to increase sociability and prompt a sustained smile expression regardless of priming texts.

A dataset of human and robot approach behaviors into small free-standing conversational groups

The analysis and simulation of the interactions that occur in group situations is important when humans and artificial agents, physical or virtual, must coordinate when inhabiting similar spaces or even collaborate, as in the case of human-robot teams. Artificial systems should adapt to the natural interfaces of humans rather than the other way around. Such systems should be sensitive to human behaviors, which are often social in nature, and account for human capabilities when planning their own behaviors. A limiting factor relates to our understanding of how humans behave with respect to each other and with artificial embodiments, such as robots. To this end, we present CongreG8 (pronounced ‘con-gre-gate’), a novel dataset containing the full-body motions of free-standing conversational groups of three humans and a newcomer that approaches the groups with the intent of joining them. The aim has been to collect an accurate and detailed set of positioning, orienting and full-body behaviors when a newcomer approaches and joins a small group. The dataset contains trials from human and robot newcomers. Additionally, it includes questionnaires about the personality of participants (BFI-10), their perception of robots (Godspeed), and custom human/robot interaction questions. An overview and analysis of the dataset is also provided, which suggests that human groups are more likely to alter their configuration to accommodate a human newcomer than a robot newcomer. We conclude by providing three use cases that the dataset has already been applied to in the domains of behavior detection and generation in real and virtual environments. A sample of the CongreG8 dataset is available at https://zenodo.org/record/4537811.

The Use of Gamification in Social Phobia

Social phobia usually starts in adolescence. Social situations that include meeting people, talking in groups, or in more specific situations are going to be avoided by individuals. Therefore, this condition has the consequence of significant impairment in different occupations. Recent studies show that gamification is commonly applied to interventions for the treatment of chronic diseases, and although there are interventions concerning mental health, these are few and there is evidence that these interventions have positive effects on mental health, particularly among young people. The desensitization therapy program using gamification consisted of 15 sessions: an initial assessment session, 13 biweekly exposure therapy sessions, and the last reevaluation session corresponding to a total duration of the program of seven weeks. Each session, lasting approximately 50 minutes, is followed a formal structure consisting of the following phases. The intervention focused on shaping appropriate approach behaviors through a process of successive approximations.