scholarly journals A principled approach to feature selection in models of sentence processing

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Garrett Smith ◽  
Shravan Vasishth
Keyword(s):  
Sentence Processing ◽  
Degrees Of Freedom ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Retrieval Cues ◽  
Feature Representations ◽  
Self Organized ◽  
Porcelain Plate ◽  
Retrieval Interference ◽  
Processing Difficulty ◽  
Recent Extension

Among theories of human language comprehension, cue-based memory retrieval has proven to be a useful framework for understanding when and how processing difficulty arises in the resolution of long-distance dependencies. Most previous work in this area has assumed that very general retrieval cues like [+subject] or [+singular] do the work of identifying (and sometimes misidentifying) a retrieval target in order to establish a dependency between words. However, recent work suggests that general, hand-picked retrieval cues like these may not be enough to explain illusions of plausibility (Cunnings & Sturt, 2018), which can arise in sentences like The letter next to the porcelain plate shattered. Capturing such retrieval interference effects requires lexically specific features and retrieval cues, but hand-picking the features is hard to do in a principled way and greatly increases modeler degrees of freedom. To remedy this, we use word embeddings, a well-established method for creating distributed feature representations, for lexical features and retrieval cues. We show that the similarity between the features and the cues (a measure of plausibility) predicts total reading times in Cunnings and Sturt’s eye-tracking data. The features can easily be plugged into existing parsing models (including cue-based retrieval and self-organized parsing), putting very different models on more equal footing and facilitating future quantitative comparisons. In addition to this methodological contribution, our results suggest that, contrary to Cunnings and Sturts’ original conclusions, focused words might be more prominent in memory, making them less susceptible to interference, as predicted by a recent extension to ACT-R (Engelmann, Jäger, & Vasishth, 2019).

scholarly journals Subject encodings and retrieval interference

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nathan Arnett ◽  
Matthew Wagers
Keyword(s):  
Eye Tracking ◽  
Sentence Processing ◽  
Retrieval Cues ◽  
Syntactic Theory ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Syntactic Properties ◽  
Retrieval Interference ◽  
Processing Difficulty

Interference has been identified as a cause of processing difficulty in linguistic dependencies, such as the subject-verb relation (Van Dyke and Lewis, 2003). However, while mounting evidence implicates retrieval interference in sentence processing, the nature of the retrieval cues involved - and thus the source of difficulty - remains largely unexplored. Three experiments used self-paced reading and eye-tracking to examine the ways in which the retrieval cues provided at a verb characterize subjects. Syntactic theory has identified a number of properties correlated with subjecthood, both phrase-structural and thematic. Findings replicate and extend previous findings of interference at a verb from additional subjects, but indicate that retrieval outcomes are relativized to the syntactic domain in which the retrieval occurs. One, the cues distinguish between thematic subjects in verbal and nominal domains. Two, within the verbal domain, retrieval is sensitive to abstract syntactic properties associated with subjects and their clauses. We argue that the processing at a verb requires cue-driven retrieval, and that the retrieval cues utilize abstract grammatical properties which may reflect parser expectations.

scholarly journals Distinguishing effects of number interference and number attraction in sentence processing.

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katja Suckow
Keyword(s):  
Sentence Processing ◽  
Relative Clause ◽  
Interference Effect ◽  
Initial Structure ◽  
Retrieval Cues ◽  
Structure Building ◽  
Test Number ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Attraction Effects ◽  
Retrieval Interference

Several comprehension studies have found evidence for number attraction effects: Processing a number-inflected verb is harder when a NP with the same number intervenes between the subject and verb (Pearlmutter et al., 1999; Wagers et al., 2009). This predicts that "was" in Example 1 should be harder when the verb is preceded by a plural ("customers" or "directors") than a singular NP. In contrast, similarity-based interference (Dyke & Lewis, 2003; Vasishth & Lewis 2005) predicts retrieval interference when a verb needs to be integrated with its dependents. The retrieval of a dependent should be more difficult when it shares retrieval cues (e.g., number) with another phrase. This predicts longer reading times at "was" with singular interfering NPs (customer or director). 1. The secretary | who argued with | the customer(s) of the director(s) | was on | the train | to the meeting. An eye-tracking experiment showed a number interference effect from the local NP ("director") in first fixation for the train and from the second NP ("customer") in total times for the same region. There was no number attraction effect. One possibility is that we did not find evidence for number attraction because the number attractor was syntactically deeply embedded in a relative clause. To test number attraction from nouns not in a relative clause, the intervening attractor ("farmers") was in a PP in Experiment 2. We also tested whether attraction effects might be part of checking processes after initial structure building. If so, these effects should be strong during reanalysis. Thus, we compared structurally ambiguous (2, without comma) and unambiguous sentences (with comma). The verb "has" not only resolves the ambiguity, it also agrees with "cousin". Thus, when the verb is preceded by a plural number attractor ("farmers"), reanalysis should be harder according to the number attraction account. 2. After Virginia answered(,) the cousin of the farmer(s) | has to | think it | all over again. Ambiguous sentences took longer to read than unambiguous sentences. More importantly, although there was no attraction or interference effect for unambiguous sentences, regression-path times for "has to" in the ambiguous sentences were longer when there was a plural than singular attractor. This suggests that number attraction affects comprehension as part of a checking process. We will discuss the implications of both experiments for number attraction and similarity-based interference.

scholarly journals The effect of prominence and cue association on retrieval processes: A computational account

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Felix Engelmann ◽  
Lena A. Jäger ◽  
Shravan Vasishth
Keyword(s):  
Sentence Processing ◽  
Cognitive Processes ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Empirical Evaluation ◽  
Experimental Designs ◽  
Empirical Results ◽  
Retrieval Processes ◽  
Context Dependent ◽  
Retrieval Interference ◽  
Partial Success

We present a comprehensive empirical evaluation of the ACT-R-based model of sentence processing developed by Lewis & Vasishth (2005) (LV05). The predictions of the model are compared with the results of a recent meta-analysis of published reading studies on retrieval interference in reflexive-/reciprocal-antecedent and subject-verb dependencies (Jäger, Engelmann, & Vasishth, 2017). The comparison shows that the model has only partial success in explaining the data; and we propose that its prediction space is restricted by oversimplifying assumptions. We then implement a revised model that takes into account differences between individual experimental designs in terms of the prominence of the target and the distractor in memory and context-dependent cue-feature associations. The predictions of the original and the revised model are quantitatively compared with the results of the meta-analysis. Our simulations show that, compared to the original LV05 model, the revised model accounts for the data better. The results suggest that effects of prominence and variable cue-feature associations need to be considered in the interpretation of existing empirical results and in the design and planning of future experiments. With regard to retrieval interference in sentence processing and to the broader field of psycholinguistic studies, we conclude that well-specified models in tandem with high-powered experiments are needed in order to uncover the underlying cognitive processes.

scholarly journals Honeybee dance-followers respond similarly to dances regardless of their spatial information content

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthew J. Hasenjager ◽  
William Hoppitt ◽  
Ellouise Leadbeater
Keyword(s):  
Information Content ◽  
Spatial Information ◽  
Empirical Support ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Self Organized ◽  
Diffusion Analysis ◽  
Novel Targets ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Collective Influence

AbstractHoneybees famously use waggle dances to communicate foraging locations to nestmates in the hive, thereby recruiting them to those sites. The decision to dance is governed by rules that, when operating collectively, are assumed to direct foragers to the most profitable locations with little input from potential recruits, who are presumed to respond similarly to any dance regardless of its information content. Yet variation in receiver responses can qualitatively alter collective outcomes. Here, we use network-based diffusion analysis to compare the collective influence of dance information during recruitment to feeders at different distances. We further assess how any such effects might be achieved at the individual level by dance-followers either persisting with known sites when novel targets are distant and/or seeking more accurate spatial information to guide long-distance searches. Contrary to predictions, we found no evidence that dance-followers’ responses depended on target distance. While dance information was always key to feeder discovery, its importance did not vary with feeder distance, and bees were in fact quicker to abandon previously rewarding sites for distant alternatives. These findings provide empirical support for the longstanding assumption that self-organized foraging by honeybee colonies relies heavily on signal performance rules with limited input from recipients.

scholarly journals Drift Reduction of a 4-DOF Measurement System Caused by Unstable Air Refractive Index

Sensors ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 20 (21) ◽  
pp. 6329
Author(s):  
Ruijun Li ◽  
Yongjun Wang ◽  
Pan Tao ◽  
Rongjun Cheng ◽  
Zhenying Cheng ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Refractive Index ◽  
Laser Beam ◽  
Measurement System ◽  
Degrees Of Freedom ◽  
Cost Effective ◽  
Control Mode ◽  
Detection Accuracy ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Cost Effective Method ◽  
Novel Method

Laser beam drift greatly influences the accuracy of a four degrees of freedom (4-DOF) measurement system during the detection of machine tool errors, especially for long-distance measurement. A novel method was proposed using bellows to serve as a laser beam shield and air pumps to stabilize the refractive index of air. The inner diameter of the bellows and the control mode of the pumps were optimized through theoretical analysis and simulation. An experimental setup was established to verify the feasibility of the method under the temperature interference condition. The results indicated that the position stability of the laser beam spot can be improved by more than 79% under the action of pumping and inflating. The proposed scheme provides a cost-effective method to reduce the laser beam drift, which can be applied to improve the detection accuracy of a 4-DOF measurement system.

A neurocognitive perspective on retrieval interference in L2 sentence processing

2016 ◽  
Vol 20 (4) ◽  
pp. 687-688 ◽  
Author(s):  
PHILLIP HAMRICK ◽  
MICHAEL T. ULLMAN
Keyword(s):  
Sentence Processing ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
Cross Domain ◽  
Memory Representations ◽  
Retrieval Interference ◽  
L1 And L2 ◽  
Processing Differences ◽  
Increased Susceptibility

Cunnings (Cunnings) offers an interpretation of L2-L1 sentence processing differences in terms of memory principles. We applaud such cross-domain approaches, which seem likely to significantly elucidate the neurocognition of language. Cunnings attributes sentence processing differences between (adult) high proficiency L2 and L1 speakers to an increased susceptibility to similarity-based retrieval interference, rather than to qualitative L2-L1 processing differences (cf. Clahsen & Felser, 2006). On his account, both L1 and L2 sentence processing depend upon a ‘bipartite’ working memory, which involves maintaining items active by focusing attention on long-term memory representations (Cowan, 2001).

scholarly journals The Contributions of Singular and Plural Nouns to Sentence Processing Complexity: Evidence from Reading Time

2020 ◽  
Vol 7 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Rachel H. Messer ◽  
Shelia Kennison
Keyword(s):  
Sentence Processing ◽  
Experimental Psychology ◽  
Reading Time ◽  
Sentence Comprehension ◽  
Conceptual Representation ◽  
Psychonomic Bulletin ◽  
Psycholinguistic Research ◽  
Garden Path ◽  
And Linguistics ◽  
Processing Difficulty

The nature of semantic representations of plural nouns has been a subject of debates in the literature. The present research investigated the extent to which there are differences in the processing of plural versus single noun descriptions (e.g., the large chairs vs. the large chair).  In two reading experiments, we tested whether plural (versus singular) nouns appearing in sentences were more difficult to process initially and/or led to increased processing difficulty when occurring in sentences that contain a temporary syntactic ambiguity. Reading time on syntactically ambiguous sentences containing plural or singular nouns were compared with reading time on unambiguous control sentences. The results of both experiments demonstrated significant effects of sentence ambiguity.  No effects or interactions involving noun number were observed, indicating that the complexity of plural nouns does not result in processing difficulty during sentence comprehension. References Adams, B., Clifton, C., & Mitchell, D. (1998). Lexical guidance in sentence processing? Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 5(2), 265-270. Baayen, R. H., Dijkstra, T., & Schreuder, R. (1997). Singulars and plurals in Dutch: Evidence for a parallel dual-route model. Journal of Memory and Language, 37(1), 94-117. Barker, C. (1992). Group Terms in English: Representing Groups as Atoms. Journal of Semantics 9, 69-93. Barsalou, L. W. (1999).  Perceptual symbol systems. Brain and Behavioral Sciences, 22, 577-660. Clark, H. H. (1973). The language-as-fixed-effect fallacy: A critique of language statistics in psychological research. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 12, 335-359. Dominguez, A., Cuetos, F., & Segui, J. (1999). The processing of grammatical gender and number in Spanish. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 28(5), 485-498. Ferreira, F., & Henderson, J. (1990). Use of verb information during syntactic parsing: Evidence from eye tracking and word by word self-paced reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 16, 555-568. Ferreira, F., & Henderson, J. M. (1991). Recovery from misanalyses of garden-path sentences. Journal of Memory and Language, 30(6), 725-745. Ferreira, F., & McClure, K. K. (1997). Parsing of garden-path sentences with reciprocal verbs. Language and Cognitive Processes, 12, 273–306. Garnsey, S. M., Pearlmutter, N. J., Myers, E., & Lotocky, M. (1997). The contributions of verb bias and plausibility to the comprehension of temporarily ambiguous sentences. Journal of Memory & Language, 37, 58-93. Johnson-Laird, P. (1983). Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference, and Consciousness.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kennison, S. M. (2001). Limitations on the use of verb information in sentence comprehension.  Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 132-138. Kennison, S. M. (2005).  Different time courses of integrative semantic processing for plural and singular nouns: Implications for theories of sentence processing. Cognition, 97, 269-294. Mitchell, D. C. (1987). Lexical guidance in human parsing: Locus and processing characteristics. In M. Coltheart (Ed.), Attention and Performance 12: The psychology of reading (pp. 601-618). Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.  New, B., Brysbaert, M., Segui, J., Ferrand, L., & Rastle, K. (2004). The processing of singular and plural nouns in French and English. Journal of Memory and Language, 51, 568-585. Patson, N. D. (2014). The processing of plural expressions. Language and Linguistics Compass, 8(8), 319-329. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/lnc3.12085 Patson, N. D., George, G., & Warren, T. (2014). The conceptual representation of number. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(7), 1349-1365. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2013.863372 Patson, N.(2014). The processing of plural expressions. Language and Linguistics Compass, 8(8), 319-329. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/lnc3.12085 Patson, N. (2016). Evidence in support of a scalar implicature account of plurality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 42(7), 1140-1153. doi:10.1037/xlm0000224 Patson, N. D., & Ferreira, F. (2009). Conceptual plural information is used to guide early parsing decisions: Evidence from garden-path sentences with reciprocal verbs. Journal of Memory and Language, 60, 464-486. Patson, N., George, G., & Warren, T. (2014). The conceptual representation of number. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(7), 1349-1365. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2013.863372 Patson, N., & Warren, T. (2011). Building complex reference objects from dual sets. Journal of Memory and Language, 64, 443–459. Patson, N., & Warren, T. (2014). Comparing the roles of referents and event structures in parsing preferences. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 29, 408–423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01690965.2013.788197 Schneider, W., Eschman, A., & Zuccolotto, A. (2002). E-Prime (Version 2.0). [Computer software and manual]. Pittsburgh, PA: Psychology Software Tools Inc. Schreuder, R., & Baayen, R. (1997). How complex simple words can be. Journal of Memory and Language, 37(1), 118-139.   Schwarzschild, R. (1996). Pluralities. Kluwer, Dordrecht. Sereno, J. A., & Jongman, A. (1997). Processing of English inflectional morphology. Memory & Cognition, 25(4), 425-437. Sturt, P., Pickering, M. J., & Crocker, M. W. (2000). Search strategies in syntactic reanalysis. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 29(2), 183-194. Zwaan, R. A., Stanfield, R. A., & Yaxley, R. H. (2002).  Language comprehenders mentally represent the shapes of objects. Psychological science, 13(2), 168-171.

scholarly journals Long-distance syntactic dependencies drive the complexity of legal language

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eric Martinez ◽  
Francis Mollica ◽  
Edward Gibson
Keyword(s):  
Low Frequency ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Passive Voice ◽  
Reading Levels ◽  
Legal Documents ◽  
Embedded Clauses ◽  
Legal Concepts ◽  
Syntactic Dependencies ◽  
Center Embedding ◽  
Processing Difficulty

Although contracts and other legal documents have long been known to cause processing difficulty in laypeople, the source and nature of this difficulty has remained unclear. To better understand this mismatch, we conducted a corpus analysis (~10 million words) to investigate to what extent difficult-to-process features that are reportedly common in contracts--such as center embedding, low-frequency jargon, passive voice and non-standard capitalization--are in fact present in contracts relative to normal texts. We found that all of these features were strikingly more prevalent in contracts relative to standard-English texts. We also conducted an experimental study ($n=108$ subjects) to determine to what extent such features cause processing difficulties for laypeople of different reading levels. We found that contractual excerpts containing these features were recalled and comprehended at a lower rate than excerpts without these features, even for experienced readers, and that center-embedded clauses led to greater decreases in recall than other features. These findings confirm long-standing anecdotal accounts of the presence of difficult-to-process features in contracts, and show that these features inhibit comprehension and recall of legal content for readers of all levels. Our findings also suggest such difficulties may largely result from working memory costs imposed by complex syntactic features--such as center-embedded clauses--as opposed to a mere lack of understanding of specialized legal concepts, and that removing these features would be both tractable and beneficial for society at large.

scholarly journals A linear approach to relative multiple embedding

2003 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kei Yoshimoto
Keyword(s):  
Real Time ◽  
Sentence Processing ◽  
Language Competence ◽  
Linguistic Performance ◽  
Linear Approach ◽  
Processing Step ◽  
And Performance ◽  
Human Sentence Processing ◽  
Processing Difficulty ◽  
Made In

It is generally accepted among psycholinguists that real-time human sentence processing proceeds incrementally from left to right. Recently proposals have been made in the domain of syntax to reduce phenomena which have hitherto been accounted for in terms of linguistic performance to linear structures given at the level of competence. Keeping in line with this tendency in research, this paper tries to reestablish the much discussed relationship between the two aspects of language, competence and performance: the issue of processing difficulty dependent on sorts of multiple clause embedding is addressed by incorporating into HPSG a mechanism reflecting left-to-right processing and memory costs calculated at each processing step.

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