Predictive value of serum prolactin levels measured immediately after transsphenoidal surgery

2002 ◽  
Vol 97 (2) ◽  
pp. 307-314 ◽  
Author(s):  
Arun P. Amar ◽  
William T. Couldwell ◽  
Joseph C. T. Chen ◽  
Martin H. Weiss
Keyword(s):  
Prolactin Level ◽  
Serum Prolactin ◽  
Surgical Removal ◽  
Consecutive Series ◽  
Cure Rate ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
Fine Print ◽  
Group 1

Object. Prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas may be managed by surgery, medication, radiotherapy, or observation. The authors reviewed a consecutive series of patients who were followed for at least 5 years after surgery to assess the prognostic significance of preoperative factors (tumor size and prolactin level) and an immediate postoperative factor (prolactin level obtained the morning after surgery) on long-term hormonal outcome, thereby clarifying the indications for surgical removal of tumor, the definition of successful treatment outcomes, and the nature of “recurrent” tumors. Methods. Between 1979 and 1991, 241 patients with prolactinomas underwent transsphenoidal resection. Nineteen patients were lost to follow-up review, whereas the remaining 222 patients underwent measurement of their prolactin levels on postoperative Day 1 (POD 1), at 6 and 12 weeks, and every 6 months thereafter for a minimum of 5 years. On POD 1, prolactin levels in 133 patients (Group 1) were lower than 10 ng/ml, in 43 patients (Group 2) between 10 and 20 ng/ml, and in 46 patients (Group 3) higher than 20 ng/ml. At 6 and 12 weeks, normal prolactin levels (≤ 20 ng/ml) were measured in 132 (99%) of the 133 patients in Group 1 but only in 32 (74%) of the 43 patients in Group 2. By 5 years postoperatively, normal levels of prolactin were still measured in 130 patients (98%) in Group 1 compared with only five patients (12%) in Group 2. No patient with a prolactin level lower than 3 ng/ml on POD 1 was found to have an elevated hormone level at 5 years. The likelihood of a long-term chemical cure was greater for patients with microadenomas (91% cure rate) than for those with macroadenomas (33%). Preoperative prolactin levels also correlated with hormonal outcome. Conclusions. Prolactin levels lower than 10 ng/ml on POD 1 predict a long-term chemical cure in patients with microadenomas (100% cure rate) and those with macroadenomas (93% cure rate). In contrast, a cure is not likely to be obtained in patients with normal levels ranging between 10 and 20 ng/ml on POD 1 if they harbor macroadenomas (0% cure rate). A recurrence reported several years after surgery probably represents the presence of persistent tumor that was not originally removed. If the initial operation was performed by an experienced surgeon, however, reoperation is not likely to yield a chemical cure.

Cognitive functioning in long-term survivors of high-grade glioma

1994 ◽  
Vol 80 (2) ◽  
pp. 247-253 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yvonne M. Archibald ◽  
Diane Lunn ◽  
Lesley A. Ruttan ◽  
David R. Macdonald ◽  
Rolando F. Del Maestro ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Impairment ◽  
High Grade Glioma ◽  
High Grade ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
Long Term Survivors ◽  
Disease Free ◽  
Fine Print ◽  
Group 1

✓ In a pilot study, two groups of patients with malignant glioma underwent sequential neuropsychological evaluations after successful tumor treatment. Group 1 included nine patients treated from 1981 to 1985; all patients received irradiation and eight underwent chemotherapy. The baseline neuropsychological assessment was performed 1 to 63 months after tumor diagnosis, with follow-up evaluations at irregular intervals over the next 3 to 7 years. Six patients in Group 1 exhibited impairment on most measures at baseline; subsequently, two patients developed profound cognitive impairment. Initially, three patients functioned in the average range on most tasks; thereafter, two deteriorated on one measure each. Group 2 was ascertained prospectively and included 16 patients treated from 1985 to 1987, all of whom received irradiation and chemotherapy. The first evaluation was performed 18 months after diagnosis, then every 6 months for 2 years, and then yearly. Compared to a control group, those in Group 2 had significant cognitive impairment at baseline. Cognitive performance did not change over the next 12 months in 10 patients who remained free of tumor, but within 2 years of baseline testing, deterioration on specific tasks was evident in two of seven disease-free survivors. When last tested, five of six disease-free survivors had deteriorated on one or more measures. Unlike Group 1, severe global cognitive impairment was not seen, perhaps because Group 2 was followed for a shorter time. Verbal and nonverbal composite scores derived from intelligence quotient (IQ) tests showed less impairment at baseline than did other measures and were more likely to remain stable subsequently. Verbal memory and sustained attention were the most impaired at baseline, and verbal learning and flexibility in thinking showed the greatest tendency to decline over time. Cognitive functioning in survivors of high-grade glioma is best measured and monitored by tests that probe a broader spectrum of abilities than IQ. Neuropsychological measures used in this analysis lacked sensitivity at the lower end of the impaired range. Future studies should use tests better able to discern cognitive differences at low performance levels. Based on this experience, the authors conclude that most long-term survivors of high-grade glioma will have significant cognitive difficulties, usually evident by the first assessment; some patients will develop profound impairment years later, and few are capable of fully independent living.

Neuroendoscopic approach to tectal tumors: a consecutive series

1999 ◽  
Vol 91 (6) ◽  
pp. 964-970 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kazunari Oka ◽  
Yoshiaki Kin ◽  
Yoshinori Go ◽  
Yushi Ueno ◽  
Katsuyuki Hirakawa ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Mr Imaging ◽  
Signal Intensity ◽  
Obstructive Hydrocephalus ◽  
Consecutive Series ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Group 3 ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
Operative Notes ◽  
Fine Print ◽  
Group 1

Object. The authors report a consecutive series of 10 patients who presented with signs and symptoms caused by tectal tumors. Clinical findings, radiographic features, neuroendoscopic management strategies, and histological findings are reported and discussed.Methods. Since January 1990, 11 neuroendoscopic procedures were performed in 10 patients who harbored tectal tumors. The patients were followed for an average of 5 years (range 2 months-11 years), and a retrospective study was conducted in which case notes, radiological findings, operative notes, and histopathological findings were assessed. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging was performed, and the images were used to classify patients into three groups: those with hypertrophy of the tectum in whom isointensity appeared on T1-weighted images (Group 1); those with a tectal tumor occupying the cerebral aqueduct in whom decreased signal intensity appeared on T1-weighted images, as well as no enhancement after gadolinium administration (Group 2); and those with a tectal tumor in whom mixed signal intensity and conspicuous evidence of contrast enhancement appeared on T1-weighted images (Group 3). The results of histological examination were consistent with MR imaging features: in Group 1, glial tissue or gliosis; in Group 2, benign astrocytoma; and in Group 3, malignant astrocytoma. Cerebrospinal fluid diversion was the only surgical treatment that provided relief from obstructive hydrocephalus. One patient in Group 3 underwent radiotherapy and subsequent partial tumor removal under neuroendoscopic guidance. Thereafter, the tumor remained in decline. All patients had normal intellectual status after undergoing surgery in which a neuroendoscope was used.Conclusions. Neuroendoscopic procedures can provide histological diagnosis, define the tumor—midbrain interrelationship, and be highly effective in treating obstructive hydrocephalus and in removing tectal tumors. This procedure may receive clinical application as a new management strategy for tectal glioma.

Transsphenoidal microsurgery for prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas

1982 ◽  
Vol 56 (1) ◽  
pp. 33-43 ◽  
Author(s):  
Miguel A. Faria ◽  
George T. Tindall
Keyword(s):  
Pituitary Adenomas ◽  
Serum Prolactin ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Contrast Enhanced ◽  
Additional Surgery ◽  
Transsphenoidal Microsurgery ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
Diagnostic Work ◽  
Fine Print ◽  
Group 1

✓ The authors present the results of transsphenoidal microsurgery in 100 women with the amenorrhea-galactorrhea syndrome caused by pituitary adenomas associated with hyperprolactinemia (prolactinomas). As the surgical results were closely related to the preoperative levels of serum prolactin, the patients were divided into two groups: patients with preoperative prolactin less than 200 ng/ml (Group 1), and those with preoperative prolactin greater than 200 ng/ml (Group 2). The results in Group 1 (72 patients) were significantly better. In this group, 56 (78%) patients regained normal menstrual cycles, and 55 (76%) had return of elevated prolactin levels to normal following surgery. In Group 2 (28 patients), however, only 11 (39%) resumed normal menstrual periods postoperatively, and 13 (46%) had return of elevated prolactin levels to normal. There was good correlation between tumor size and the preoperative level of prolactin. Of the 72 women in Group 1, 58 (81%) had tumors less than 1 cm (microadenomas), whereas of the 28 women in Group 2, only four (14%) had tumors of that size. All patients with visual field deficits preoperatively improved or had a normal visual examination postoperatively; none was made worse by surgery. Four patients (three in Group 2) have required additional surgery and/or irradiation. In the last six patients of the series, contrast-enhanced coronal computerized tomography slices made with the updated General Electric scanner detected five microadenomas. Considering that a relatively high percentage of sellar polytomograms are negative in patients with proven microadenomas (that is, only 40 of 72 patients in Group 1 had abnormal polytomography), it is likely that sellar polytomography will significantly decrease in importance in the diagnostic work-up of these patients. The authors provide a rationale for transsphenoidal microsurgery in these patients as opposed to other forms of management, such as bromocriptine therapy and irradiation.

Relationship between the timing of aneurysm surgery and the development of delayed cerebral ischemia

1991 ◽  
Vol 75 (1) ◽  
pp. 56-61 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert A. Solomon ◽  
Stephen T. Onesti ◽  
Louise Klebanoff
Keyword(s):  
Cerebral Ischemia ◽  
Delayed Cerebral Ischemia ◽  
Time Interval ◽  
Consecutive Series ◽  
Aneurysm Surgery ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Group 3 ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
Fine Print ◽  
Group 1

✓ A consecutive series of 145 patients with acute aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) were operated on within 7 days of SAH and were prospectively evaluated over a 4-year period to determine if the timing of aneurysm surgery influenced the development of delayed cerebral ischemia. All patients were managed with a standardized policy of urgent surgical clipping and treatment with aggressive prophylactic postoperative volume expansion. Patients with delayed ischemic symptoms were additionally treated with induced hypertension. Forty-nine patients underwent surgery on Day 0 or 1 (Group 1) post-SAH, 60 patients on Day 2 or 3 (Group 2), and 36 patients on Days 4 through 7 (Group 3). Postoperative delayed cerebral ischemia developed in 16% of (Group 1) patients, in 22% of Group 2 patients, and in 28% of Group 3 patients. Cerebral infarction resulting from delayed cerebral ischemia developed in only 4% of Group 1 patients, 10% of Group 2 patients, and 11 % of Group 3 patients. A bad clinical outcome as a result of delayed cerebral ischemia occurred in one Group 1 patient (2%), two Group 2 patients (3%), and one Group 3 patient (3%). Preoperative grade was not significantly correlated with the incidence or severity of delayed cerebral ischemia at any time interval except that patients in modified Hunt and Hess Grade I or II who underwent surgery on Day 0 or 1 after SAH had no strokes or bad outcomes from delayed cerebral ischemia. This study demonstrates that there is no rationale for delaying aneurysm surgery based on the time interval between SAH and patient evaluation.

Evaluation of brain-stem dysfunction following severe fluid-percussion head injury to the cat

1991 ◽  
Vol 74 (2) ◽  
pp. 270-277 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katsuji Shima ◽  
Anthony Marmarou
Keyword(s):  
Brain Stem ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Fluid Percussion ◽  
Fluid Percussion Injury ◽  
Brain Stem Injury ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
High Level ◽  
Subarachnoid Hemorrhages ◽  
Fine Print ◽  
Group 1

✓ The degree of brain-stem dysfunction associated with high-level fluid-percussion injury (3.0 to 3.8 atm) was investigated in anesthetized cats. Measurements were made of the animals' intracranial pressure (ICP), pressure-volume index (PVI), far-field brain-stem auditory evoked responses (BAER's), and cerebral blood flow (CBF). The animals were classified into two groups based on the severity of neuropathological damage to the brain stem after trauma: Group 1 had mild intraparenchymal and subarachnoid hemorrhages and Group 2 had severe intraparenchymal and subarachnoid hemorrhages. The ICP values in Group 1 were insignificantly lower than those in Group 2, while the PVI values in Group 2 were clearly lower (p < 0.05). Immediately after the injury, peaks II, III, and IV of the BAER's demonstrated a transitory and marked suppression. One Group 1 and two Group 2 animals showed the disappearance of peak V. In Group 1, the latencies of peak II, III, and IV gradually increased until 60 to 150 minutes postinjury, then returned to 95% of baseline value at 8 hours; however, the animals in Group 2 showed poor recovery of latencies. Two hours after brain injury, the CBF decreased to 40% of the preinjury measurement in both groups (p < 0.001). In contrast to Group 2, the CBF in Group 1 returned to 86.8% of the preinjury measurement by 8 hours following the injury. Changes in PVI, BAER, and CBF correlated well with the degree of brain-stem injury following severe head injury'- These data indicate that high-level fluid-percussion injury (> 3.0 atm) is predominantly a model of brain-stem injury.

A novel rat model for the study of intraosseous metastatic spine cancer

2005 ◽  
Vol 2 (3) ◽  
pp. 303-307 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ajay Mantha ◽  
Federico G. Legnani ◽  
Carlos A. Bagley ◽  
Gary L. Gallia ◽  
Ira Garonzik ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Rat Model ◽  
Breast Adenocarcinoma ◽  
Rank Test ◽  
Functional Score ◽  
Histopathological Analysis ◽  
Sham Operation ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
Fine Print ◽  
Group 1

Object. Although metastatic spinal disease constitutes a significant percentage of all spinal column tumors, an accessible and reproducible animal model has not been reported. In this study the authors describe the technique for creating an intraosseous spinal tumor model in rats and present a functional and histological analysis. Methods. Eighteen female Fischer 344 rats were randomized into two groups. Group 1 animals underwent a transabdominal exposure and implantation of CRL-1666 breast adenocarcinoma into the L-6 vertebral body (VB). Animals in Group 2 underwent a sham operation. Hindlimb function was tested daily by using the Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan scale. Sixteen days after tumor implantation, animals were killed and their spines were removed for histological assessment. Statistical analysis was performed using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. By Day 15 functional analysis showed a significant decrease in motor function in Group 1 animals (median functional score 2 of 21) compared with Group 2 rats (median functional score 21 of 21) (p = 0.0217). The onset of paraparesis in Group 1 occurred within 14 to 16 days of surgery. Histopathological analysis showed tumor proliferation through the VB and into the spinal canal, with marked osteolytic activity and spinal cord compression. Conclusions. Analysis of these findings demonstrates the consistency of tumor growth in this model and validates the utility of functional testing for onset of paresis. This new rat model allows for the preclinical evaluation of novel therapeutic treatments for patients harboring metastatic spine disease.

Prognostic significance of magnetic resonance imaging in the acute phase of cervical spine injury

1992 ◽  
Vol 76 (2) ◽  
pp. 218-223 ◽  
Author(s):  
Dale M. Schaefer ◽  
Adam E. Flanders ◽  
Jewell L. Osterholm ◽  
Bruce E. Northrup
Keyword(s):  
Cervical Spine ◽  
Mr Imaging ◽  
Prognostic Significance ◽  
Spinal Segment ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Group 3 ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
Fine Print ◽  
Group 1

✓ Fifty-seven patients with acute cervical spine injuries and associated major neurological deficit were examined within 2 weeks of injury by magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. All patients had abnormal scans, indicating intramedullary lesions. This study was undertaken to determine if the early MR imaging pattern had a prognostic relationship to the eventual neurological outcome. Three different MR imaging patterns were observed in these patients: 21 patients had patterns characteristic of intramedullary hematoma (Group 1); 17 had intramedullary edema over more than one spinal segment, but no hemorrhage (Group 2); and 19 had restricted zones of intramedullary edema involving one spinal segment or less (Group 3). The neurological state was determined using standard motor index scores at admission and at follow-up examination. Characteristically, the patients in Group 1 had admission motor scores significantly lower than the other two groups. At follow-up examination, the median percent motor recovery was 9% for Group 1, 41% for Group 2, and 72% for Group 3. These studies suggest that the MR imaging pattern observed in the acutely injured human spinal cord has a prognostic significance in the final outcome of the motor system. It is only when an accurate prognosis can be given at the outset that useful treatment data might be collected for homogeneous injury groups, and accurately based long-term planning made for the best patient care.

Treatment of staphylococcal ventriculitis associated with external cerebrospinal fluid drains: a prospective randomized trial of intravenous compared with intraventricular vancomycin therapy

2003 ◽  
Vol 98 (5) ◽  
pp. 1040-1044 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bettina Pfausler ◽  
Heinrich Spiss ◽  
Ronny Beer ◽  
Andreas Kampfl ◽  
Klaus Engelhardt ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cerebrospinal Fluid ◽  
Trough Level ◽  
Once Daily ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Treatment Groups ◽  
Efficacious Treatment ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
Vancomycin Level ◽  
Fine Print ◽  
Group 1

Object. Staphylococcal ventriculitis may be a complication in temporary external ventricular drains (EVDs). The limited penetration of vancomycin into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is well known; the pharmacodynamics and efficacy of systemically compared with intraventricularly administered vancomycin is examined in this prospective study. Methods. Ten patients in whom EVDs were implanted to treat intracranial hemorrhage and who were suffering from drain-associated ventriculitis were randomized into two treatment groups. Five of these patients (median age 47 years) were treated with 2 g/day vancomycin administered intravenously (four infusions/day, Group 1), and the other five (median age 49 years) received 10 mg vancomycin intraventricularly once daily (Group 2). Vancomycin levels were measured in serum and CSF six times a day. The maximum vancomycin level in CSF was 1.73 ± 0.4 µg/ml in Group 1 and 565.58 ± 168.71 µg/ml 1 hour after vancomycin application in Group 2 (mean ± standard deviation). Vancomycin levels above the recommended trough level of 5 µg/ml in CSF were never reached in Group 1, whereas in Group 2 they were below the trough level (3.74 ± 0.66 µg/ml) only at 21 hours after intraventricular vancomycin application. The vancomycin level in the serum was constant within therapeutic levels in Group 1, whereas in Group 2 in most instances vancomycin was almost below a measurable concentration. In both groups bacteriologically and laboratory-confirmed CSF clearance could be obtained. Conclusions. Intraventricular vancomycin application is a safe and efficacious treatment modality in drain-associated ventriculitis, with much higher vancomycin levels being achieved in the ventricular CSF than by intravenous administration.

Hypophosphatemia and hypomagnesemia induced by cooling in patients with severe head injury

2001 ◽  
Vol 94 (5) ◽  
pp. 697-705 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kees H. Polderman ◽  
Saskia M. Peerdeman ◽  
Armand R. J. Girbes
Keyword(s):  
Head Injury ◽  
Severe Head Injury ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Induced Hypothermia ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Cooling Period ◽  
Urine Production ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
Fine Print ◽  
Group 1

Object. Induced hypothermia in patients with severe head injury may prevent additional brain injury and improve outcome. However, this treatment is associated with severe side effects, including life-threatening cardiac tachyarrhythmias. The authors hypothesized that these arrhythmias might be caused by electrolyte disorders and therefore studied the effects of induced hypothermia on urine production and electrolyte levels in patients with severe head injury. Methods. Urine production, urine electrolyte excretion, and plasma levels of Mg, phosphate, K, Ca, and Na were measured in 41 patients with severe head injury. Twenty-one patients (Group 1, study group) were treated using induced hypothermia and pentobarbital administration, and 20 patients (Group 2, controls) were treated with pentobarbital administration alone. In Group 1, Mg levels decreased from 0.98 ± 0.15 to 0.58 ± 0.13 mmol/L (mean ± standard deviation; p < 0.01), phosphate levels from 1.09 ± 0.19 to 0.51 ± 0.18 mmol/L (p < 0.01), Ca levels from 2.13 ± 0.25 to 1.94 ± 0.14 mmol/L (p < 0.01), and K levels from 4.2 ± 0.59 to 3.6 ± 0.7 mmol/L (p < 0.01) during the first 6 hours of cooling. Electrolyte levels in the control Group 2 remained unchanged. Electrolyte depletion in Group 1 occurred despite the fact that moderate and, in some cases, substantial doses of electrolyte supplementation were given to many patients, and supplementation doses were often increased during the cooling period. Average urine production increased during the cooling period, from 219 ± 70 to 485 ± 209 ml/hour. When the targeted core temperature of 32°C was reached, urine production returned to levels that approximated precooling levels (241 ± 102 ml/hour). Electrolyte levels rose in response to high-dose supplementation. In the control group, urine production and electrolyte excretion remained unchanged throughout the study period. Conclusions. Induced hypothermia is associated with severe electrolyte depletion, which is at least partly due to increased urinary excretion through hypothermia-induced polyuria. This may be the mechanism through which induced hypothermia can lead to arrhythmias. When using this promising new treatment in patients with severe head injury, stroke, or postanoxic coma following cardiopulmonary resuscitation, prophylactic electrolyte supplementation should be considered and electrolyte levels should be monitored frequently.

Surgical alternatives in the treatment of cavernous sinus aneurysms

1989 ◽  
Vol 71 (6) ◽  
pp. 846-853 ◽  
Author(s):  
Fernando G. Diaz ◽  
Sam Ohaegbulam ◽  
Manuel Dujovny ◽  
James I. Ausman
Keyword(s):  
Carotid Artery ◽  
Internal Carotid Artery ◽  
Cavernous Sinus ◽  
Visual Loss ◽  
Internal Carotid ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Group 3 ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
Fine Print ◽  
Group 1

✓ Direct surgery on aneurysms in the cavernous sinus is a formidable technical procedure. The intimate relationship of the intracavernous carotid artery to the venous structures and to the cranial nerves make surgical access difficult at best. Thirty-two of 356 aneurysm patients presented with symptomatic aneurysms originating from the intracavernous internal carotid artery. Twenty-one patients had aneurysms contained entirely within the cavernous sinus, and in 11 others the aneurysms arose within the cavernous sinus and extended into the subarachnoid space. Of the purely intracavernous aneurysms there were five small aneurysms (< 25 mm) and 16 giant (≥ 25 mm) aneurysms. Fifteen patients with purely intracavernous lesions had a superior orbital fissure syndrome, and six had a variety of other symptoms. Of 11 patients with subarachnoid extension, five had a subarachnoid hemorrhage (Grade I or II), five had ipsilateral visual loss, and one had periorbital pain. The aneurysms were treated as follows: Group 1 received progressive ligation of the internal carotid artery in the neck with a Selverstone clamp and a surface superficial temporal artery-middle cerebral artery (STA-MCA) anastomosis (purely intracavernous in nine, and with subarachnoid extension in one); Group 2 underwent trapping of the internal carotid artery and a deep STA-MCA anastomosis (purely intracavernous in seven); and Group 3 had direct clipping of the aneurysm (purely intracavernous in five, and with subarachnoid extension in 10). The cavernous sinus was entered directly through its roof by a pterional craniotomy with radical removal of the optic canal, lesser sphenoid wing, and lateral and superior orbital walls. Proximal control of the internal carotid artery was obtained through a cervical incision. Two patients in Group 1 developed transient neurological deficits, which resolved. Two patients in Group 2 developed a cerebral infarction, one of whom died; in both of these patients, the anastomosis was completed after the internal carotid artery occlusion. Two patients in Group 3 progressed from marked visual loss to blindness of the same side, and one developed an intraventricular hemorrhage during induction of anesthesia and died without surgery. It is proposed that a direct approach to symptomatic aneurysms in the cavernous sinus is the best initial alternative. When this approach is not feasible, a trapping procedure preceded by a high-flow extracranial-intracranial anastomosis may be considered. Although the authors have been able to clip aneurysms of various sizes, this has not been possible in all patients. Further work is needed in this area.

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