Abstract. In areas of intensive ship traffic, ships pass every 10 min. Considering the amount of ship traffic and the predicted increase
in global maritime trade, there is a need to consider all types of impacts
shipping has on the marine environment. While the awareness about, and
efforts to reduce, chemical pollution from ships is increasing, less is
known about physical disturbances, and ship-induced turbulence has so far
been completely neglected. To address the potential importance of
ship-induced turbulence on, e.g., gas exchange, dispersion of pollutants, and
biogeochemical processes, a characterisation of the temporal and spatial
scales of the turbulent wake is needed. Currently, field measurements of
turbulent wakes of real-size ships are lacking. This study addresses that
gap by using two different methodological approaches: in situ and ex situ observations. For
the in situ observations, a bottom-mounted acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP)
was placed at 32 m depth below the shipping lane outside Gothenburg harbour.
Both the acoustic backscatter from the air bubbles in the wake and the
dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy were used to quantify the
turbulent wake depth, intensity, and temporal longevity for 38 ship passages
of differently sized ships. The results from the ADCP measurements show
median wake depths of 13 m and several occasions of wakes reaching depths
> 18 m, which is in the same depth range as the seasonal
thermocline in the Baltic Sea. The temporal longevity of the observable part
of the wakes had a median of around 10 min and several passages of
> 20 min. In the ex situ approach, sea surface temperature was used as a
proxy for the water mass affected by the turbulent wake (thermal wake), as
lowered temperature in the ship wake indicates vertical mixing in a
thermally stratified water column. Satellite images of the thermal infrared sensor (TIRS) onboard Landsat-8 were used to measure thermal wake width and
length, in the highly frequented and thus major shipping lane north of
Bornholm, Baltic Sea. Automatic information system (AIS) records from both
the investigated areas were used to identify the ships inducing the wakes.
The satellite analysis showed a median thermal wake length of 13.7 km
(n=144), and the longest wake extended over 60 km, which would correspond
to a temporal longevity of 1 h 42 min (for a ship speed of 20 kn). The
median thermal wake width was 157.5 m. The measurements of the spatial and
temporal scales are in line with previous studies, but the maximum turbulent
wake depth (30.5 m) is deeper than previously reported. The results from
this study, combined with the knowledge of regional high traffic densities,
show that ship-induced turbulence occurs at temporal and spatial scales
large enough to imply that this process should be considered when estimating
environmental impacts from shipping in areas with intense ship traffic.
Spatial variation of biogeochemical properties of landfast sea ice in the Gulf of Bothnia, Baltic Sea