scholarly journals STOP SHOUTING AT ME: The Influence of Case and Self-Referencing on Explicit and Implicit Memory

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
George O. Ilenikhena ◽  
Haajra Narmawala ◽  
Allison M. Sklenar ◽  
Matthew P. McCurdy ◽  
Angela H. Gutchess ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Implicit Memory ◽  
Explicit Memory ◽  
Memory Performance ◽  
Enhancement Effect ◽  
Lower Case ◽  
Word Stem Completion ◽  
Encoding Strategies ◽  
Physical Changes ◽  
Self Reference ◽  
Context Memory

Evidence suggests that physical changes in word appearance, such as those written in all capital letters, and the use of effective encoding strategies, such as self-referential processing, improves memory. In this study we examined the extent both physical changes in word appearance (case) and encoding strategies engaged at study influence memory as measured by both explicit and implicit memory measures. Participants studied words written in upper and lower case under three encoding conditions (self-reference, semantic control, case judgment), which was followed by an implicit (word stem completion) and then an explicit (item and context) memory test. There were two primary results. First, analyses indicated a case enhancement effect for item memory where words written in upper case were better remembered than lower case, but only when participants were prompted to attend to the case of the word. Importantly, this case enhancement effect came at a cost to context memory for words written in upper case. Second, self-referencing increased explicit memory performance relative to control, but there was no effect on implicit memory. Overall, results suggest an item-context memory trade-off for words written in upper case, highlighting a potential downside to writing in all capital letters, and further, that both physical changes to the appearance of words and differing encoding strategies have a strong influence on explicit, but not implicit memory.

scholarly journals Memory for emotional images differs according to the presence of depressive symptoms in individuals at risk for dementia

2016 ◽  
Vol 29 (4) ◽  
pp. 673-685 ◽  
Author(s):  
Brandy L. Callahan ◽  
Robert Laforce ◽  
Michel Dugas ◽  
Carol Hudon
Keyword(s):  
Depressive Symptoms ◽  
Memory Performance ◽  
Enhancement Effect ◽  
Late Life Depression ◽  
Emotional Information ◽  
Memory Biases ◽  
Delayed Recall ◽  
Neuropsychological Profile ◽  
Encoding Strategies

ABSTRACTBackground:Studies of amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and late-life depression (LLD) have examined the similarities and differences between these syndromes, but few have investigated how the cognitive profile of comorbid aMCI and subclinical depressive symptoms (aMCI/D+) may compare to that of aMCI or LLD. Memory biases for certain types of emotional information may distinguish these groups.Methods:A total of 35 aMCI, 23 aMCI/D+, 13 LLD, and 17 elderly controls (CONT) rated the valence (positive, negative, or neutral) of 30 pictures from the International Affective Picture System. Mean percent positive, negative, and neutral images recalled was compared within groups immediately and 30 minutes later.Results:Overall memory performance was comparable in aMCI and aMCI/D+, and both recalled fewer items than CONT and LLD. Group differences emerged when valence ratings were considered: at immediate and delayed recall, positive and negative pictures were generally better-remembered than neutral pictures by CONT, aMCI, and LLD, but valence was not associated with recall in aMCI/D+. Follow-up analyses suggested that the perceived intensity of stimuli may explain the emotional enhancement effect in CONT, aMCI, and LLD.Conclusions:Results support previous research suggesting that the neuropsychological profile of aMCI/D+ is different from that of aMCI and LLD. Although depressed and non-depressed individuals with aMCI recall comparable quantities of information, the quality of the recalled information differs significantly. On theoretical grounds, this suggests the existence of distinct neurobiological or neurofunctional manifestations in both groups. Practically, these differences may guide the development of personalized emotion-focused encoding strategies in cognitive training programs.

The effects of divided attention on implicit and explicit memory performance

1996 ◽  
Vol 2 (2) ◽  
pp. 111-125 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maureen Schmitter-Edgecombe
Keyword(s):  
Implicit Memory ◽  
Divided Attention ◽  
Explicit Memory ◽  
Memory Performance ◽  
Rating Task ◽  
Attention Condition ◽  
Full Attention ◽  
Implicit And Explicit Memory ◽  
Implicit And Explicit ◽  
The Relationship

AbstractThis study explored the nature of the relationship between attention available at learning and subsequent implicit and explicit memory performance. One hundred neurologically normal subjects rated their liking of target words on a five-point scale. Half of the subjects completed the word-rating task in a full attention condition and the other half performed the task in a divided attention condition. Following administration of the word-rating task, all subjects completed five memory tests, three implicit (category association, tachistoscopic identification, and perceptual clarification) and two explicit (semantic-cued recall and graphemic-cucd recall), each bearing on a different subset of the list of previously presented target words. The results revealed that subjects in the divided attention condition performed significantly more poorly than subjects in the full attention condition on the explicit memory measures. In contrast, there were no significant group differences in performance on the implicit memory measures. These findings suggest that the attention to an episode that is necessary to produce later explicit memory may differ from that necessary to produce unconscious influences. The relationship between implicit memory, neurologic injury, and automatic processes is discussed. (JINS, 1996, 2, 111–125.)

scholarly journals Dependence of Explicit and Implicit Memory on Hypnotic State in Trauma Patients 

1999 ◽  
Vol 90 (3) ◽  
pp. 670-680 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gitta H. Lubke ◽  
Chantal Kerssens ◽  
Hans Phaf ◽  
Peter S. Sebel
Keyword(s):  
Individual Differences ◽  
Implicit Memory ◽  
Bispectral Index ◽  
Memory Performance ◽  
The Other ◽  
Auditory Information ◽  
Trauma Patients ◽  
Completion Test ◽  
Word Stem Completion ◽  
The Individual

Background It is still unclear whether memory of intraoperative events results entirely from moments of inadequate anesthesia. The current study was designed to determine whether the probability of memory declines with increasing depth of the hypnotic state. Method A list of words was played via headphones during surgery to patients who had suffered acute trauma. Several commonly used indicators of anesthetic effect, including the bispectral index, were recorded during word presentation. First, these indicators served as predictors of the memory performance in a postoperative word stem completion test. Second, general memory performance observed in the first part was separated into explicit and implicit memory using the process dissociation procedure, and then two models of memory were compared: One model assumed that the probability of explicit and implicit memory decreases with increasing depth of hypnotic state (individual differences model), whereas the other assumed equal memory performance for all patients regardless of their level of hypnotic state. Results General memory performance declined with decreasing bispectral index values. None of the other indicators of hypnotic state were related to general memory performance. Memory was still significant at bispectral index levels between 60 and 40. A comparison of the two models of memory resulted in a better fit of the individual differences model, thus providing evidence of a dependence of explicit and implicit memory on the hypnotic state. Quantification of explicit and implicit memory revealed a significant implicit but no reliable explicit memory performance. Conclusions This study clearly indicates that memory is related to the depth of hypnosis. The observed memory performance should be interpreted in terms of implicit memory. Auditory information processing occurred at bispectral index levels between 60 and 40.

An Investigation of Learning during Propofol Sedation and Anesthesia Using the Process Dissociation Procedure

2000 ◽  
Vol 93 (6) ◽  
pp. 1418-1425 ◽  
Author(s):  
Clare L. Stapleton ◽  
Jackie Andrade
Keyword(s):  
Explicit Memory ◽  
Memory Performance ◽  
Venous Blood ◽  
Word List ◽  
Process Dissociation ◽  
Process Dissociation Procedure ◽  
Completion Test ◽  
Implicit And Explicit Memory ◽  
Word Stem Completion ◽  
Implicit And Explicit

Background Many studies have shown that patients may remember words learned during apparently adequate anesthesia. Performance on memory tests may be influenced by explicit and implicit memory. We used the process dissociation procedure to estimate implicit and explicit memory for words presented during sedation or anesthesia. Methods We investigated intraoperative learning in 72 women undergoing pervaginal oocyte collection during propofol and alfentanil infusion. One word list was played once before infusion, another was played 10 times during surgery. Venous blood was taken for propofol assay at the end of the intraoperative list. Behavioral measures of anesthetic depth (eyelash reflex, hand squeeze response to command) were recorded and used to adjust the dose of anesthetic where clinically appropriate. On recovery, memory was assessed using an auditory word stem completion test with inclusion and exclusion instructions. Results The mean blood propofol concentration was 2.5 microg/ml (median, 2.3 microg/ml; range, 0.7-6.1 microg/ml). Mean alfentanil dose was 2.1 mg (median, 2.0 mg; range, 1.2-3.4 mg). Comparison of target and distractor hits in the inclusion condition showed memory for preoperative words only. However, the process dissociation procedure estimates showed explicit (mean, 0.18; P < 0.001) and implicit (mean, 0.05; P < 0.05) memory for the preoperative words, and a small amount of explicit memory for the intraoperative words (mean, 0.06; 95% confidence interval, 0.01-0.10). Memory performance did not differ between the 17 patients who consistently responded to command and eyelash reflex and the 32 patients who remained unresponsive. Blood propofol concentration and alfentanil dose did not correlate with memory for the intraoperative list. Conclusions There was no unprompted recall of surgery, but the process dissociation procedure showed memory for words presented during surgery. This memory was apparently explicit but did not correlate with the measures of depth of anesthesia used.

Memory Function during Propofol and Alfentanil Anesthesia

2002 ◽  
Vol 97 (2) ◽  
pp. 382-389 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chantal Kerssens ◽  
Gitta H. Lubke ◽  
Jan Klein ◽  
Andries van der Woerd ◽  
Benno Bonke
Keyword(s):  
Explicit Memory ◽  
Memory Performance ◽  
Memory Function ◽  
Process Dissociation ◽  
Process Dissociation Procedure ◽  
Speed Of Information Processing ◽  
Light Sedation ◽  
Word Stem Completion ◽  
Exclusion Condition ◽  
Forearm Technique

Background Conscious recall and implicit memory have been shown to depend on hypnotic state as measured by electroencephalographic (EEG) bispectral index (BIS). A third expression of memory (unconscious-controlled memory) was recently observed after moderate to light sedation (BIS, 70-80). The present study investigated memory function during deep sedation (BIS, 60-70). As memory effects are small, the authors studied potential predictors of individual differences in memory performance. Methods Memory function and speed of information processing were assessed in 56 outpatients before surgery. During propofol anesthesia supplemented with alfentanil, patients heard a series of words while anesthesia was titrated to BIS, 60-70. In between words, response to command was assessed using the Isolated Forearm Technique. The authors tested memory with a word stem completion task and process dissociation procedure to distinguish explicit from implicit effects. Results Mean (+/- SD) BIS during word presentation was 64.0 +/- 3. Patients with conscious recall of verbal commands (n = 9) did not recall or recognize presented words. Even so, the process dissociation procedure revealed evidence of memory by a significantly higher hit rate in the inclusion condition (0.26) than in the exclusion condition (0.12). Patients without conscious recall showed no evidence of memory for presented words. Hit scores correlated significantly with scores in the preoperative memory test (r = 0.35). Conclusions The authors found evidence of weak explicit memory function during anesthesia titrated to BIS, 60-70. The observations strongly suggest that postoperative memory relates to awareness during anesthesia, but the nature of this relation remains unclear. Memory seems more likely in patients with good preoperative memory performance.

Increased Reading Speed for Stories Presented during General Anesthesia 

1999 ◽  
Vol 90 (3) ◽  
pp. 662-669 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sinikka Munte ◽  
Isabelle Kobbe ◽  
Avra Demertzis ◽  
Ekkehard Lullwitz ◽  
Thomas F. Munte ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Nitrous Oxide ◽  
General Anesthesia ◽  
Implicit Memory ◽  
Explicit Memory ◽  
Reading Speed ◽  
Oxygen Mixture ◽  
Stem Completion ◽  
Completion Task ◽  
Speed Task ◽  
Word Stem Completion

Background In the absence of explicit memories such as the recall and recognition of intraoperative events, memory of auditory information played during general anesthesia has been demonstrated with several tests of implicit memory. In contrast to explicit memory, which requires conscious recollection, implicit memory does not require recollection of previous experiences and is evidenced by a priming effect on task performance. The authors evaluated the effect of a standardized anesthetic technique on implicit memory, first using a word stem completion task, and then a reading speed task in a subsequent study. Methods While undergoing lumbar disc surgery, 60 patients were exposed to auditory materials via headphones in two successive experiments. A balanced intravenous technique with propofol and alfentanil infusions and a nitrous oxide-oxygen mixture was used to maintain adequate anesthesia. In the first experiment, 30 patients were exposed randomly to one of the two lists of 34 repeated German nouns; in the second experiment, 30 patients were exposed to one of two tapes containing two short stories. Thirty control patients for each experiment heard the tapes without receiving anesthesia. All patients were tested for implicit memory 6-8 h later: A word stem completion task for the words and a reading speed task for the stories were used as measures of implicit memory. Results The control group completed the word stems significantly more often with the words that they had heard previously, but no such effect was found in the anesthetized group. However, both the control and patient groups showed a decreased reading time of about 40 ms per word for the previously presented stories compared with the new stories. The patients had no explicit memory of intraoperative events. Conclusions Implicit memory was demonstrated after anesthesia by the reading speed task but not by the word stem completion task. Some methodologic aspects, such as using low frequency words or varying study and test modalities, may account for the negative results of the word stem completion task. Another explanation is that anesthesia with propofol, alfentanil, and nitrous oxide suppressed the word priming but not the reading speed measure of implicit memory. The reading speed paradigm seems to provide a stable and reliable measurement of implicit memory.

Preserved Implicit Memory for Lexical Information in Alzheimer's Disease

1992 ◽  
Vol 74 (3) ◽  
pp. 747-754 ◽  
Author(s):  
T. J. Perfect ◽  
J. J. Downes ◽  
P. De Mornay Davies ◽  
K. Wilson
Keyword(s):  
Alzheimer’S Disease ◽  
Alzheimer's Disease ◽  
Implicit Memory ◽  
Early Stage ◽  
Memory Performance ◽  
Elderly Subjects ◽  
Anagram Solution ◽  
Lexical Information ◽  
Lexical Priming ◽  
Word Stem Completion

Recent studies have suggested that there is a specific impairment of implicit memory for lexical priming in Alzheimer's Disease. However, there are problems in accepting data from the word-stem completion paradigm as evidence of pure implicit-memory performance. To assess whether Alzheimer's Disease patients are relatively impaired on implicit memory for lexical information an anagram-solution task was adopted. A group of 16 early stage Alzheimer's Disease patients and a group of 16 normal elderly subjects were presented a list of 40 target words. Subsequent free recall was significantly poorer in the former group, but while both groups were significantly better at solving anagrams for words they had previously seen, there was no difference between the two groups in the amount of priming. The data are consistent with the view that previous reports of an implicit deficit in Alzheimer's Disease may not generalise to implicit tasks independent of explicit-memory performance.

Implicit memory for words presented in short texts is preserved in Alzheimer's disease

2002 ◽  
Vol 33 (1) ◽  
pp. 169-174 ◽  
Author(s):  
J.-F. CAMUS ◽  
S. NICOLAS ◽  
E. WENISCH ◽  
I. MORRONE ◽  
F. BLANCHARD ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Alzheimer’S Disease ◽  
Alzheimer's Disease ◽  
Implicit Memory ◽  
Explicit Memory ◽  
Priming Effect ◽  
Semantic Processing ◽  
Memory Performance ◽  
Read Aloud ◽  
Healthy Controls ◽  
Perceptual Aspect

Background. The level of efficiency of implicit memory in Alzheimer's disease remains unclear as previous studies using stem completion tasks have led to contradictory results.Method. The present study used target words embedded in significant short texts that subjects were required to read aloud (i.e. to enhance semantic processing). Texts were presented in two perceptual situations: ‘simple’ (blank spaces delimitating words) and ‘complex’ (spaces were filled by ‘8’s). In the completion phase, patients had to write the first word that came to mind in order to complete a three-letter stem. The recognition phase explored explicit memory performance. The performance of 24 Alzheimer patients was compared to a matched sample of healthy controls.Results. Reading times differed between groups and were shorter for healthy controls. Recognition was dramatically lower in patients, thus confirming the alteration of explicit memory in this pathology. However, a significant priming effect (e.g. the tendency to complete the stem with the aid of a previously explored word) was present in both groups and did not differ between patients and healthy controls.Conclusions. The absence of a correlation between priming and recognition scores suggests that this result cannot be explained by an explicit memory bias. Moreover, as the priming level was identical whatever the perceptual aspect of the text, we suggest that the priming effect is not only mediated by perceptual processes but also by lexical and conceptual processes, which to some extent are preserved during the light and moderate stages of this disease.

Investigation of Implicit Memory during Isoflurane Anesthesia for Elective Surgery Using the Process Dissociation Procedure

2005 ◽  
Vol 103 (5) ◽  
pp. 925-933 ◽  
Author(s):  
Irène A. Iselin-Chaves ◽  
Sylvie J. Willems ◽  
Françoise C. Jermann ◽  
Alain Forster ◽  
Stéphane R. Adam ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
General Anesthesia ◽  
Implicit Memory ◽  
Explicit Memory ◽  
Elective Surgery ◽  
Memory Performance ◽  
Memory Function ◽  
Memory Task ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Process Dissociation ◽  
Process Dissociation Procedure

Background This prospective study evaluated memory function during general anesthesia for elective surgery and its relation to depth of hypnotic state. The authors also compared memory function in anesthetized and nonanesthetized subjects. Methods Words were played for 70 min via headphones to 48 patients (aged 18-70 yr) after induction of general anesthesia for elective surgery. Patients were unpremedicated, and the anesthetic regimen was free. The Bispectral Index (BIS) was recorded throughout the study. Within 36 h after the word presentation, memory was assessed using an auditory word stem completion test with inclusion and exclusion instructions. Memory performance and the contribution of explicit and implicit memory were calculated using the process dissociation procedure. The authors applied the same memory task to a control group of nonanesthetized subjects. Results Forty-seven patients received isoflurane, and one patient received propofol for anesthesia. The mean (+/- SD) BIS was 49 +/- 9. There was evidence of memory for words presented during light (BIS 61-80) and adequate anesthesia (BIS 41-60) but not during deep anesthesia (BIS 21-40). The process dissociation procedure showed a significant implicit memory contribution but not reliable explicit memory contribution (mean explicit memory scores 0.05 +/- 0.14, 0.04 +/- 0.09, and 0.05 +/- 0.14; mean automatic influence scores 0.14 +/- 0.12, 0.17 +/- 0.17, and 0.18 +/- 0.21 at BIS 21-40, 41-60, and 61-80, respectively). Compared with anesthetized patients, the memory performance of nonanesthetized subjects was better, with a higher contribution by explicit memory and a comparable contribution by implicit memory. Conclusion During general anesthesia for elective surgery, implicit memory persists even in adequate hypnotic states, to a comparable degree as in nonanesthetized subjects.

Identification and memory for fear-relevant stimuli: Implicit memory performance of insect fearfuls favours fear-relevant pictures

1995 ◽  
Vol 47 (2) ◽  
pp. 105-109 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lynne M. Harris ◽  
Roger D. Adams ◽  
Ross G. Menzies ◽  
Brett K. Hayes
Keyword(s):  
Implicit Memory ◽  
Memory Performance
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