AbstractThe microbiota contributes to shaping efficient and safe immune defenses in the gut. However, little is known about the role of the microbiota in the education of pulmonary innate immune responses. Here, we tested whether the endogenous microbiota can modulate reactivity of pulmonary tissue to pathogen stimuli by comparing the response of specific pathogen-free (SPF) and germ-free (GF) mice. Using SPF and GF mice intranasally exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a component of Gram-negative bacteria, we observed earlier and greater inflammation in the pulmonary compartment of GF mice than that of SPF mice. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) was more abundantly expressed in the lungs of GF mice than those of SPF mice at steady state, which could predispose the innate immunity of GF mice to strongly react to environmental stimuli. Lung explants were stimulated with different TLR agonists or infected with the human airways pathogen, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), resulting in greater inflammation under almost all conditions for the GF explants. Finally, alveolar macrophages (AM) from GF mice presented a higher innate immune response upon RSV infection than those of SPF mice. Overall, these data suggest that the presence of microbiota in SPF mice induced a process of innate immune tolerance in the lungs by a mechanism which remains to be elucidated. Our study represents a step forward to establishing the link between the microbiota and the immune reactivity of the lungs.Plain Language summaryMicrobiota represents an important partner of immunologic system at the interface between immune cells and epithelium. It is well known, notably in the gut, that the microbiota contributes in shaping efficient and safe defenses. However, little is known about the role of the microbiota in the education of pulmonary innate immune responses. In this study, we postulate that endogenous microbiota could dampen an excessive reactivity of pulmonary tissue to external stimuli. Thus, we sought to study the innate immune reaction switched on by viral or bacterial ligands in respiratory tract cells coming from mice with or without microbiota (germ-free condition, GF). Altogether, our results show a higher inflammatory reaction in GF condition. This study represents a step forward to better establish the link between the microbiota and the reactivity of the lung tissue. Not only these data demonstrate that the microbiota educates the pulmonary innate immune system, but also contributes the emerging concept of using respiratory commensal bacteria as potential next-generation probiotics to prevent susceptibility to respiratory diseases.
Osteoarthritis and Toll-Like Receptors: When Innate Immunity Meets Chondrocyte Apoptosis
