scholarly journals Profil Gambaran Endoskopi di Pusat Endoskopi KSM Ilmu Penyakit Dalam RSUP Prof. Dr. R. D. Kandou Periode Januari 2016 – Desember 2017

e-CliniC ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Fadil Dewantara ◽  
Bradley J. Waleleng ◽  
Octavianus Umboh
Keyword(s):  
Gastric Ulcer ◽  
Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Hiatal Hernia ◽  
Medical Records ◽  
Gastrointestinal Endoscopy ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Gastric Polyp ◽  
Erosive Gastritis ◽  
Common Diagnosis ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal

Abstract: Gastrointestinal endoscopy in the upper gastrointestinal tract is performed to obtain the condition of gastrointestinal mucosa. This study was aimed to obtain the profile of UGIB among endoscopy patients at the Gastrointestinal Endoscopy Center of Prof. Dr. R. D. Kandou Hospital Manado from January 2016 to December 2017. This was a descriptive retrospective study using medical records of patients who were registered at the Gastro-intestinal Endoscopy Center from January 2016 to December 2017. The result shows that from 420 cases, there were 7 diagnoses after endoscopy, as follows: esophagitis, gastritis, erosive gastritis, gastric ulcer, gastric polyp, duodenitis, and hiatal hernia. The most common diagnosis of UGIB was gastritis in 155 cases (37%), esophagitis in 124 cases (30%), duodenitis in 40 cases (10%), gastric polyp in 36 cases (9%), hiatal hernia in 22 cases (5%), erosive gastritis in 21 cases (4%), gastric ulcer in 17 cases (4%), and the other diagnoses (varices esophagus, esophagus ulcer, duodenum ulcer, achalasia) in 5 cases (1%). UGIB occured more common in males with 227 cases (54%) compared to female with 193 cases (46%). The most frequent age group was 56-65 years old with 86 cases, and the most rare case was >75 years old. Conclusion: Upper gastrointestinal bleeding occured more common among males, aged 56-65 years. Gastritis was the most common diagnosis in endoscopy.Keywords: endoscopy, upper gastrointestinal bleeding Abstrak: Pemeriksaan endoskopi pada saluran cerna bagian atas berfungsi untuk mengeva-luasi keadaan mukosa saluran cerna atas dan sekitarnya. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendapatkan profil gambaran endoskopi di Pusat Endoskopi KSM Ilmu Penyakit Dalam RSUP Prof. Dr. R. D. Kandou Manado periode Januari 2016 – Desember 2017. Jenis penelitian ialah deskriptif retroskpektif menggunakan data rekam medik pasien perdarahan SCBA yang melakukan pemeriksaan endoskopi periode Januari 2016 – Desember 2017. Hasil penelitian mendapatkan dari 420 kasus, ditemukan 7 diagnosis setelah tindakan endoskopi (EGD), yaitu esofagitis, gastritis, gastritis erosiva, gastric ulcer, polip gaster, duodenitis dan hernia hiatus. Diagnosis perdarahan SCBA terbanyak ialah gastritis 155 kasus (37%), esofagitis yaitu 124 kasus (30%), duodenitis 40 kasus (10%), polip gaster 36 kasus (9%), hiatus hernia 22 kasus (5%), gastritis erosiva 21 kasus (4%), gastric ulcer 17 kasus (4%), dan kasus dengan dignosis lainnya (varices esophagus, esophagus ulcer, duodenum ulcer, achalasia) sebanyak 5 kasus (1%). Perdarahan SCBA banyak terjadi pada pasien dengan jenis kelamin laki-laki berjumlah 227 pasien (54%) dibandingkan dengan pasien perempuan berjumlah 193 pasien (46%). Berdasarkan usia, terbanyak pada kelompok usia 56-65 tahun sebanyak 139 kasus dan terendah pada kelompok usia >75 tahun. Simpulan: Perdarahan SCBA lebih sering terjadi pada laki-laki, kelompok usia 56-65 tahun, dengan gastritis sebagai diagnosis terbanyak pada pasien perdarahan SCBA yang melakukan pemeriksaan endoskopi.Kata kunci: endoskopi (EGD), perdarahan SCBA

scholarly journals Gambaran Esofagogastroduodenoskopi Pasien Hematemesis dan atau Melena di RSUP M Djamil Padang Periode Januari 2010 - Desember 2013

2016 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Fadhil Alfino Azmi ◽  
Saptino Miro ◽  
Detty Iryani
Keyword(s):  
Peptic Ulcer ◽  
Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Medical Records ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Clinical Manifestations ◽  
Erosive Gastritis ◽  
Descriptive Data ◽  
Common Etiology ◽  
Integrated Diagnostics ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal

AbstrakPerdarahan saluran cerna bagian atas adalah kehilangan darah dalam lumen saluran cerna yang bermula dari esofagus sampai duodenum. Manifestasi kinis berupa hematemesis (muntah darah) dan atau melena (tinja hitam). Kasus ini masih banyak dilaporkan dari berbagai rumah sakit. Etiologi yang sering dilaporkan adalah varises esofagus, ulkus peptikum, gastritis erosif dan lain-lain. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah mengetahui frekuensi diagnosis esofagogastroduodenoskopi (EGD) pasien hematemesis dan atau melena di RSUP M Djamil Padang. Jenis penelitian yang digunakan adalah deskriptif retrospektif. Data diambil secara total sampling dari rekam medik pasien hematemesis dan atau melena yang dilakukan pemeriksaan EGD di Instalasi Diagnostik Terpadu (IDT) RSUP M Djamil Padang periode.Januari.2010.–.Desember.2013. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan 162 pasien kasus terbanyak adalah ulkus gaster (27,8%). Menurut jenis kelamin, pria lebih banyak dibanding wanita yaitu pria (64,8%) dan wanita (35,2%) rasio 1,8 : 1. Kelompok umur terbanyak adalah 51-60 tahun yaitu (20,0%). Lokasi lesi yang paling banyak ditemukan adalah gaster (48,8%).Kata kunci: esofagogastroduodenoskopi, perdarahan saluran cerna bagian atas, hematemesis, melena AbstractUpper gastrointestinal bleeding is a loss of blood in lumen of the gastrointestinal tract from esophagus to duodenum. Clinical manifestations are hematemesis (vomiting of blood) and/or melena (black stools). Many cases were widely reported from various hospitals. The most common etiology that often being reported are esophageal varices, peptic ulcer, erosive gastritis, etc. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency of esophagogastroduodenoscopy(EGD) findings in patients with hematemesis and/or melena in M Djamil Hospital Padang. The design of this research was retrospective descriptive. Data was taken from the result of patient's EGD examination(medical records) that having hematemesis and/or melena in Integrated Diagnostics Installation of M Djamil Hospital Padang from January 2010 to December 2013. The results showed that the highest cases of 162 patients were gastric ulcer (27.8%). According to gender, more men cases than women cases.  Men (64.8%) and women (35.2%) with ratio 1.8 : 1. Most cases occurred on 51-60 years old (20.0%). Location of lesions were most commonly found in gaster (48.8%).Keywords: esophagogastroduodenoscopy, upper gastrointestinal bleeding, hematemesis, melena

scholarly journals Profil pasien perdarahan saluran cerna bagian atas yang dirawat di RSUP Prof. Dr. R. D Kandou Manado periode 2013 – 2015

e-CliniC ◽  
2016 ◽  
Vol 4 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Junaidi Effendi ◽  
Bradley J. Waleleng ◽  
Cerelia Sugeng
Keyword(s):  
Peptic Ulcer ◽  
Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Medical Records ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Male Gender ◽  
Age Group ◽  
Erosive Gastritis ◽  
Common Causes ◽  
Ligament Of Treitz ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal

Abstract: Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) is the loss of blood in the lumen of gastrointestinal tract, from the eosophagus to the ligament of Treitz in the duodenum with hematemesis and melena as the symptoms. The causes of UGIB are divided into variceal and nonvariceal bleeding such as peptic ulcer, erosive gastritis, eosophagitis, Malory Weiss syndrome, and tumor. This study aimed to obtain the profile of upper gastrointestinal bleeding at Prof. Dr. R. D. Kandou Hospital Manado period 2013 to 2015. This study was conducted in November-December 2015. This was a descriptive retrospective study using medical records from the patients registered in Prof. Dr. R. D. Kandou Hospital Manado from 2013 to 2015. The results showed that there were 139 cases of UGB, consisted of 87 males (63%) and 52 females (37%). Of the 139 cases, peptic ulcer and variceal eosophagus were the most common causes of UGB; peptic ulcer in 105 cases (67%) and variceal esophagus in 34 cases (24%). The most frequent age group was 56-65 years old with 43 cases (31%), and the most rare cases were at 15-25 years old with 6 cases (6%). Conclusion: Among UGB cases at Prof. Dr. R. D. Kandou Hospital Manado from 2013 to 2015, the highest percentages were male gender, age group 56-65 years, and peptic ulcer as the most common cause. Keywords: UGB, variceal esophagus, peptic ulcer Abstrak: Perdarahan saluran cerna bagian atas (SCBA) adalah kehilangan darah dalam lumen saluran cerna dimana saja, mulai dari esofagus sampai dengan duodenum di daerah ligamentum Treitz dengan gejala hematemesis dan melena. Penyebab perdarahan SCBA terbagi atas pecahnya varises esofagus dan non-varises seperti tukak peptik, gastritis erosif, esofagitis, sindrom Mallory Weis, tumor, dll. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui profil pasien perdarahan saluran cerna bagian atas yang di rawat di RSUP Prof. dr. R. D Kandou Manado periode 2013-2015. Penelitian dilaksanakan pada bulan November-Desember 2015. Jenis penelitian ini deskriptif retrospektif dengan mengambil data rekam medik penderita perdarahan SCBA yang dirawat di RSUP Prof. Dr. R. D Kandou Manado periode 2013-2015. Hasil penelitian memperlihatkan terdapat 139 kasus perdarahan SCBA terdiri dari 87 pasien laki-laki (63%) dan 52 pasien perempuan (37%). Dari 139 kasus tersebut hanya ditemukan dua penyebab kasus perdarahan SCBA, yaitu ulkus peptikum pada 105 kasus (76%) dan varises esofagus pada 34 kasus (24%). Berdasarkan usia, tertinggi pada golongan usia 56-65 tahun sebanyak 43 kasus (31%) dan terendah pada golongan usia 15-25 tahun sebanyak 6 kasus (6%). Simpulan: Pada penelitian ini yang tersering ditemukan ialah ulkus peptik sebagai penyebab perdarahan SCBA, kelompok usia 56-65 tahun, dan pada jenis kelamin laki-laki.Kata kunci: varises esofagus, tukak peptik

scholarly journals Endoscopic Profile of the Patients with Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding in a North–Eastern State of India - A Hospital-Based Cross-Sectional Study

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 (18) ◽  
pp. 1201-1205
Author(s):  
Koushik Chakma ◽  
Saumik Chakraborty ◽  
Avik Chakraborty
Keyword(s):  
Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Gastrointestinal Endoscopy ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy ◽  
Erosive Gastritis ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Ulcer Disease ◽  
Upper Gi ◽  
North Eastern ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal

BACKGROUND Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) is one of the common medical emergencies throughout the world that may require hospital admission and results in high patient morbidity and mortality. The presentation of UGI bleeding depends on the amount and location of haemorrhage. Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy (UGIE) is the preferred investigative procedure for UGIB because of its accuracy, low rate of complication, and its potential for therapeutic interventions. The present study has been carried out to evaluate the different aetiological causes of UGIB in a tertiary care centre in the North Eastern part of India and compare the same with other studies done globally. METHODS This was a hospital based observational study with cross sectional design carried out in the Department of Medicine at Tripura Medical College & DR BRAM Teaching Hospital, Agartala. Total 376 patients were selected for this study for over a period of 2 years from January 2017 to December 2018. Upper GI endoscopy was performed in all patients after hemodynamic stabilisation. Rockall scoring system was used in non-variceal cases to predict the mortality in patients with upper GI bleeding. RESULTS A total of 376 patients had endoscopy for UGIB which included 260 (69.1 %) males and 116 (30.9 %) females, and the mean age was 47.9 (± 17.0) years. The most common cause of UGIB was peptic ulcer disease (duodenal ulcer and gastric ulcer) consisting of 31.38 %, followed by erosive gastritis (23.94 %), oesophageal varix (11.17 %), portal hypertensive gastropathy (10.64 %), duodenitis (8.51 %). Gastrointestinal malignancy (gastric and oesophageal cancers) was reported in 3.98 % and rare causes of UGIB were Mallory-Weiss syndrome (1.86 %), and esophagitis (1.60 %). Among them 4.26 % of the patients had normal endoscopy findings. CONCLUSIONS In the present study, peptic ulcer disease was the most common cause of upper gastrointestinal bleeding, followed by erosive gastritis. Rockall score of more than 4 was numerically associated with increased incidence of mortality. KEYWORDS Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding (UGIB), Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (UGIE

The Diagnosis and Prognosis of Upper Gastrointestinal Haemorrhage

1980 ◽  
Vol 66 (1) ◽  
pp. 11-14
Author(s):  
R.H. Hunt
Keyword(s):  
Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Gastrointestinal Endoscopy ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Gastrointestinal Haemorrhage ◽  
Accurate Diagnosis ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy ◽  
The Past ◽  
Diagnosis And Prognosis ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal ◽  
Overall Mortality

AbstractThere have been major advances in the diagnosis and management of upper gastrointestinal bleeding over the past two decades but the overall mortality figure remains about 10 per cent. This paper reviews the place of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in diagnosis and discusses the argument that this form of earlier, more accurate diagnosis has had no influence on the outcome of the condition.

scholarly journals Novel hemostatic adhesive powder for nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding

2019 ◽  
Vol 07 (12) ◽  
pp. E1763-E1767
Author(s):  
Jin-Seok Park ◽  
Hyung Kil Kim ◽  
Yong Woon Shin ◽  
Kye Sook Kwon ◽  
Don Haeng Lee
Keyword(s):  
Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Success Rate ◽  
Medical Records ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Endoscopic Therapy ◽  
Bleeding Site ◽  
Success Rates ◽  
Main Study ◽  
Rebleeding Rate ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal

Abstract Background and study aims A new hemostatic adhesive powder (UI-EWD) was developed to reduce high rebleeding rates and technical challenges associated with application of currently available hemostatic powders. The aim of the current study was to assess performance of UI-EWD for nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding (NVUGIB). Patients and methods A total of 56 consecutive patients that received UI-EWD monotherapy for endoscopic hemostasis due to NVUGIB were retrospectively reviewed. Main study outcomes were success rates with immediate hemostasis and rebleeding within 30 days. Outcomes were analyzed by reviewing patient medical records. Results Etiologies of bleeding were: post-endoscopic therapy bleeding in 46 (82.1 %), peptic ulcer in 8 (14.3 %), tumor in 1 (1.8 %), and other in 1 (1.8 %). UI-EWD was successfully applied at bleeding site in all cases. The success rate of immediate hemostasis was 96.4 % (54/56), and the 30-day rebleeding rate among patients that achieved immediate hemostasis was 3.7 % (2/54). No adverse event related to use of UI-EWD occurred. Conclusion UI-EWD was found to have a high immediate hemostasis success rate in NVUGIB when used as monotherapy and showed promising results in terms of preventing rebleeding.

scholarly journals A Rare Complication of Hyperplastic Gastric Polyp

2013 ◽  
Vol 2013 ◽  
pp. 1-3 ◽  
Author(s):  
Suresh Kumar Nayudu ◽  
Masooma Niazi ◽  
Bhavna Balar ◽  
Kavitha Kumbum
Keyword(s):  
Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Outlet Obstruction ◽  
American Woman ◽  
Gastric Polyp ◽  
Deficiency Anemia ◽  
Surgical Specimen ◽  
Gastric Polyps ◽  
Therapeutic Benefits ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal

Hyperplastic gastric polyps are incidentally diagnosed during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. They are known to cause gastric outlet obstruction and chronic blood loss leading to iron deficiency anemia. However, hyperplastic gastric polyp presenting as acute severe upper gastrointestinal bleeding is very rare. To the best of our knowledge, there have been two cases of hyperplastic gastric polyps presenting as acute gastrointestinal bleeding in the medical literature. We present a case of a 56-year-old African American woman who was admitted to our hospital with symptomatic anemia and sepsis. The patient developed acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding during her hospital stay. She underwent emergent endoscopy, but bleeding could not be controlled. She underwent emergent laparotomy and wedge resection to control the bleeding. Biopsy of surgical specimen was reported as hyperplastic gastric polyp. We recommend that physicians should be aware of this rare serious complication of hyperplastic gastric polyps as endoscopic polypectomy has diagnostic and therapeutic benefits in preventing future complications including bleeding.

scholarly journals Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Acute Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Xingtai City

2021 ◽  
Vol 2021 ◽  
pp. 1-6
Author(s):  
Zhihui Duan ◽  
Qiong Duan ◽  
Kun Liu ◽  
Xiaochong Zhang ◽  
Shengyun Zhou ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Gastrointestinal Endoscopy ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Daily Practice ◽  
Absolute Number ◽  
Web Based ◽  
Acute Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Before And After ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal

Background and Aims. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has severely impacted the daily practice of gastrointestinal endoscopy worldwide. Most endoscopy centers in China were shut down in late January 2020. We investigated the impact of the shutdown on acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding (AUGIB) events in Xingtai City, Hebei Province, China. Methods. A web-based survey collected information on gastroscopy workload and AUGIB events. The study period was from 4 weeks before to 4 weeks after lockdown initiation in Xingtai City. Fourteen public gastrointestinal endoscopy centers performing emergency endoscopies were contacted via e-mail to collect weekly emergency gastroscopy volumes and the number of AUGIB events. AUGIB was defined as recent melena, hematemesis, or both, with an endoscopically visible source of bleeding. Results. Twelve (85.7%) of the 14 surveyed gastrointestinal endoscopy centers in the city- and county-level hospitals responded. Altogether, 4,045 and 1,077 gastroscopy procedures were performed 4 weeks before and after lockdown initiation (73.4% reduction), respectively. Peptic ulcer-related AUGIB and variceal AUGIB events showed a 58.5% and 52.9% decline, respectively, compared with pre-COVID-19 data. Although the absolute number of AUGIB events decreased during the pandemic (from 149 to 66), the likelihood of detecting AUGIB during gastroscopy increased (3.68% (pre-COVID-19 period) versus 6.13% (COVID-19 period); P < 0.05 ). Conclusion. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a considerable reduction in gastroscopy workload and AUGIB events; however, the likelihood of detecting AUGIB increased significantly during gastroscopies.

scholarly journals A study of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in management of acute upper gastrointestinal bleed

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 (2) ◽  
pp. 631
Author(s):  
Atish N. Bansod ◽  
Amarsingh Shingade ◽  
Sarvagya Mishra
Keyword(s):  
Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Past History ◽  
Endoscopic Management ◽  
First Episode ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy ◽  
Common Symptom ◽  
Pharmacological Management ◽  
Common Diagnosis ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal

Background: Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) is life threatening emergency that remains a common cause of hospitalization worldwide. In spite of tremendous advancement in management of upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) over past two decades, it carries considerable mortality, morbidity. The present study was undertaken to know the clinical profile, endoscopic profile, intervention, outcome and mortality of upper GI bleed.Methods: A total of 110 patients of UGIB were evaluated over a period of 30 months for etiology of UGIB like peptic ulcer, variceal bleeding, gastritis, Barrett’s esophagus and malignancy. Therapeutic Intervention (Band ligation, glue injection, clipping etc.) was done as required on case to case basis.Results: Hematemesis was the most common symptom with 62(56.36%) patients. 85(77.27%) patients were presented during first episode of their bleeding. Esophageal varices 50 (45.45%) was the most common diagnosis and the most common past history was alcohol intake 48 (43.63%). 55 (50%) patients required only medical (Pharmacological) management and 50 (44.54%) patients require endoscopic management. 102 (92.72%) were improved and subsequently discharged while 8 (7.27%) patients expired during the course of treatment.Conclusions: Endoscopic examination is an important modality in both diagnosis and managing UGIB and helps to reduce morbidity, mortality and also need for surgery of the disease significantly.

scholarly journals Early Endoscopic Findings in Patients with Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Bangladesh

2015 ◽  
Vol 3 (2) ◽  
pp. 60-62
Author(s):  
Uzzwal Kumar Mallick ◽  
Mohammad Omar Faruq ◽  
SM Ishaque ◽  
ASM Areef Ahsan ◽  
Kaniz Fatema ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Duodenal Ulcer ◽  
Gastric Ulcer ◽  
Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Esophageal Varices ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding ◽  
Tertiary Care ◽  
Care Hospital ◽  
Stomal Ulcer ◽  
Female Ratio ◽  
Upper Gastrointestinal

Objective: To determine etiological pattern of patients presenting with upper gastrointestinal bleeding in a tertiary care hospital of Bangladesh.Methods: This study was a prospective observational study, carried out in the Department of Gastroenterology, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU), Dhaka, Bangladesh from January 2013 to June 2013. Fifty adult patients presenting with haematemesis and/or melaena admitted into gastroenterology inpatient unit from outpatient department or patients referred from other inpatient units of Department of Medicine of BSMMU were included in the study. Endoscopic examination was performed within 24 to 48 hours of presentation. Lower GI endoscopy was done in selected cases.Results: The study patients were predominantly young or of early middle age with mean age being 34.45 ± 16.5 yrs. A male preponderance was observed with male to female ratio being 7.3:1 (44 male and 6 female). 62% of the patients presented with both haematemesis and melaena, 26% with melaena only and 12% with haematemesis alone. Endoscopy of upper gastrointestinal tract demonstrated duodenal ulcer to be predominant finding (50%), followed by gastro-esophageal erosions (20%), gastric ulcer (12%), esophageal varices (10%), gastric adenocarcinoma (4%) and stomal ulcer (4%).Conclusions: Endoscopy revealed that duodenal ulcer was the most common cause of upper gastrointestinal bleeding followed by oesophageal erosion, gastric ulcer, esophageal varices and stomal ulcer. Peptic ulcer disease still remains as the major cause of acute upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage, though cases of oesophageal erosion were also significant.Bangladesh Crit Care J September 2015; 3 (2): 60-62

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