Biomechanics of Competitive Swimming Strokes

Throughout history, water as a tool for racialized oppression has been in constant evolution. From utilizing water as a passage to transport slaves, to using fire hoses as a form of punishment toward Black people, liquified racism is a concept we coined to represent past and present racial discrimination through the use of water. In this paper, we conducted a critical content analysis of the USA swim team and the swim team pages of the top ten Division I men’s and women’s college swimming programs to uncover how liquified racism is prominent within these contexts. Findings suggest that Blackness is racialized, tokenized, and perpetually silenced on swimming websites. We argue that Black individuals lacking representation in this sport, along with discourse surrounding competitive swimming, ultimately promotes whiteness, racial hierarchies, and an illusion of postracism.

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Race Analysis in Competitive Swimming: A Narrative Review

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph18010069 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 18 (1) ◽

pp. 69

Author(s):

Tomohiro Gonjo ◽

Bjørn Harald Olstad

Keyword(s):

Web Of Science ◽

Narrative Review ◽

Limited Evidence ◽

Long Distance ◽

Competitive Swimming ◽

Future Studies ◽

Current Review ◽

Short Course ◽

Definition Of ◽

Race Analysis

Researchers have quantified swimming races for several decades to provide objective information on race strategy and characteristics. The purpose of the present review was to summarize knowledge established in the literature and current issues in swimming race analysis. A systematic search of the literature for the current narrative review was conducted in September 2020 using Web of Science, SPORTDiscus (via EBSCO), and PubMed. After examining 321 studies, 22 articles were included in the current review. Most studies divided the race into the start, clean swimming, turn, and/or finish segments; however, the definition of each segment varied, especially for the turn. Ideal definitions for the start and turn-out seemed to differ depending on the stroke styles and swimmers’ level. Many studies have focused on either 100 m or 200 m events with the four strokes (butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and freestyle). Contrastingly, there were few or no studies for 50 m, long-distance, individual medley, and relay events. The number of studies examining races for short course, junior and Paralympic swimmers were also very limited. Future studies should focus on those with limited evidence as well as race analysis outside competitions in which detailed kinematic and physiological analyses are possible.

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Injury prevention and management program for competitive swimming: Design and implementation

Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport ◽

10.1016/j.jsams.2011.11.116 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 14 ◽

pp. e56-e57

Author(s):

J. Hardt ◽

S. Gordon ◽

N. Benjanuvatra

Keyword(s):

Injury Prevention ◽

Management Program ◽

Competitive Swimming ◽

Design And Implementation

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The Relationship between Drag Forces and Velocity for the Four Competitive Swimming Strokes

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise ◽

10.1249/00005768-200405001-00041 ◽

2004 ◽

Vol 36 (Supplement) ◽

pp. S9

Author(s):

Joshua C. White ◽

Joel McCormick Stager

Keyword(s):

Competitive Swimming ◽

Drag Forces ◽

The Relationship

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Electromyographic Evidence of Selective Muscle Fatigue during Competitive Swimming

Medicine and Science in Aquatic Sports - Medicine and Sport Science ◽

10.1159/000423700 ◽

2015 ◽

pp. 16-23 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

K. Wakayoshi ◽

T. Moritani ◽

Y. Mutoh ◽

M. Miyashita

Keyword(s):

Muscle Fatigue ◽

Competitive Swimming

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Telemetered heart rate response to selected competitive swimming events

Journal of Applied Physiology ◽

10.1152/jappl.1969.26.6.764 ◽

1969 ◽

Vol 26 (6) ◽

pp. 764-770 ◽

Cited By ~ 16

Author(s):

J. R. Magel ◽

W. D. McArdle ◽

R. M. Glaser

Keyword(s):

Heart Rate ◽

Heart Rate Response ◽

Competitive Swimming

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Prediction of Shoulder Pain in Youth Competitive Swimmers: The Development and Internal Validation of a Prognostic Prediction Model

The American Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/0363546520969913 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 49 (1) ◽

pp. 154-161

Author(s):

Stef Feijen ◽

Thomas Struyf ◽

Kevin Kuppens ◽

Angela Tate ◽

Filip Struyf

Keyword(s):

Logistic Regression ◽

Shoulder Pain ◽

Muscle Endurance ◽

Internal Validation ◽

Competitive Swimming ◽

Final Model ◽

Shoulder Muscle ◽

Multivariable Logistic Regression ◽

Posterior Shoulder ◽

Competitive Swimmers

Background: Knowledge of predictors for shoulder pain in swimmers can assist professionals working with the athlete in developing optimal prevention strategies. However, study methodology and limited available data have constrained a comprehensive understanding of which factors cause shoulder pain. Purpose: To investigate risk factors and develop and internally validate a multivariable prognostic model for the prediction of shoulder pain in swimmers. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 2. Methods: A total of 201 pain-free club- to international-level competitive swimmers were followed for 2 consecutive seasons. The cohort consisted of 96 male (mean ± SD age, 13.9 ± 2.2 years) and 105 female (13.9 ± 2.2 years) swimmers. Demographic, sport-specific, and musculoskeletal characteristics were assessed every 6 months. Swim-training exposure was observed prospectively. Shoulder pain interfering with training was the primary outcome. Multiple imputation was used to cope with missing data. The final model was estimated using multivariable logistic regression. We applied bootstrapping to internally validate the model and correct for overoptimism. Results: A total of 42 new cases of shoulder pain were recorded during the study. Average duration of follow-up was 1.1 years. Predictors included in the final model were acute:chronic workload ratio (odds ratio [OR], 4.31; 95% CI, 1.00-18.54), competitive level (OR, 0.19; 95% CI, 0.06-0.63), shoulder flexion range of motion, posterior shoulder muscle endurance (OR, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.92-0.99), and hand entry position error (OR, 0.37; 95% CI, 0.16-0.91). After internal validation, this model maintained good calibration and discriminative power (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.60-0.94). Conclusion: Our model consists of parameters that are readily measurable in a swimming setting, allowing the identification of swimmers at risk for shoulder pain. Multivariable logistic regression showed the strongest predictors for shoulder pain were regional competitive swimming level, acute:chronic workload ratio, posterior shoulder muscle endurance, and hand entry error.

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Bioimpedance Vector Patterns Changes in Response to Swimming Training: An Ecological Approach

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph17134851 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 17 (13) ◽

pp. 4851 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Joana F. Reis ◽

Catarina N. Matias ◽

Francesco Campa ◽

José P. Morgado ◽

Paulo Franco ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Major Axis ◽

Training Load ◽

Single Frequency ◽

Ecological Approach ◽

Dry Land ◽

Competitive Swimming ◽

Cellular Density ◽

Joint Interpretation ◽

Phase Sensitive ◽

Frequency Phase

Background and aim: Monitoring bioelectric phase angle (PhA) provides important information on the health and the condition of the athlete. Together with the vector length, PhA constitutes the bioimpedance vector analysis (BIVA) patterns, and their joint interpretation exceeds the limits of the evaluation of the PhA alone. The present investigation aimed to monitor changes in the BIVA patterns during a training macrocycle in swimmers, trying to ascertain if these parameters are sensitive to training load changes across a 13-week training period. Methods: Twelve national and international level swimmers (four females; eight males; 20.9 ± 1.9 years; with a competitive swimming background of 11.3 ± 1.8 years; undertaking 16–20 h of pool training and 4–5 h of dry-land training per week and 822.0 ± 59.0 International Swimming Federation (FINA) points) were evaluated for resistance (R) and reactance (Xc) using a single frequency phase sensitive bioimpedance device at the beginning of the macrocycle (M1), just before the beginning of the taper period (M2), and just before the main competition of the macrocycle (M3). At the three-time assessment points, swimmers also performed a 50 m all-out first stroke sprint with track start (T50 m) while time was recorded. Results: The results of the Hotelling T2 test showed a significant vector displacement due to simultaneous R and Xc changes (p < 0.001), where shifting from top to bottom along the major axis of the R-Xc graph from M1 to M2 was observed. From M2 to M3, a vector displacement up and left along the minor axis of the tolerance ellipses resulted in an increase in PhA (p < 0.01). The results suggest a gain in fluid with a decrease in cellular density from M1 to M2 due to decrements in R and Xc. Nevertheless, the reduced training load characterizing taper seemed to allow for an increase in PhA and, most importantly, an increase of Xc, thus demonstrating improved cellular health and physical condition, which was concomitant with a significant increase in the T50 m performance (p < 0.01). Conclusions: PhA, obtained by bioelectrical R and Xc, can be useful in monitoring the condition of swimmers preparing for competition. Monitoring BIVA patterns allows for an ecological approach to the swimmers’ health and condition assessment without resorting to equations to predict the related body composition variables.

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