The third-century ‘crisis’ (c. AD 250–70)

London’s port was abandoned in the mid-third century and its waterfront quays dismantled in changes that cast important new light on the problems of the third century. This chapter sets out the detail of the redundancy of London’s port and reviews arguments that might explain it. It does so by establishing a chronology that suggests that the port ceased to function effectively c. AD 255, and that the waterfront was crudely refashioned into a bank at some point in the 260s. This redundancy followed a rapid decline in the volume of goods being traded over longer-distances, and is argued to have been the consequence of a revised policy with regard to annona. The Thames may also have ceased to be tidal at this time, contributing to the redundancy of the port but not explaining the speed of its dereliction and destruction. Further light obtains from a study of the failure and abandonment of sites associated with Wealden iron production. An explanation is proposed: involving a loss of military manpower and naval capacity, possibly provoked by the epidemic of the 250s known as the plague of Cyprian and compounded by military failure and barbarian threat. Rome’s loss of control over its coastal waters and rising Frankish piracy at the time of the Gallic Empire might explain why ships ceased to dock at London’s quays, which were dismantled to defend the riverside.

ΣIDERWIN—A New Route for Iron Production

Iron and steel production contributes to ~10% of global CO2 emissions. In recent decades, different scenarios and low-emission pathways have been taken up by steelmaking industries with the collaboration of universities and research institutes to tackle this problem. One of the most promising novel methods to replace the current steelmaking process is the low-temperature electrolysis of iron oxide. This technology is currently being developed under the H2020 ΣIDERWIN project, a European project led by ArcelorMittal, the world’s leading steel and mining company. The ΣIDERWIN project aims at developing an innovative electrochemical process to transform iron oxide into steel metal plates. This process produces steel by electrolysis without direct CO2 emissions. In this operation, electrical energy and iron oxide are converted into chemical energy consisting of separated iron metal from the oxygen gas. It is a disruptive innovation that entirely shifts the way steel is presently produced. One of the advantages of this process is the fact that, in addition to iron oxide (hematite), it is possible to feed this process with other iron-containing raw materials. An alternative raw material which is being studied to be used in this process is bauxite residue (BR), the waste material from the Bayer process for alumina production. The iron oxide of the conversion of bauxite residue to metallic iron is under investigation, and insights are showing that it could follow up the electrochemical route for sustainable iron production. This research deals with the effect of the current density and temperature on current efficiency comparing two different raw materials, pure iron oxide–hematite and bauxite residue.

The Sungai Batu Archaeological Complex: Re-assessing the Emergence of Ancient Kedah

This article proposes new historical perspectives arising from the findings in the Sungai Batu Archaeological Complex, Kedah, by the Centre for Global Archaeological Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia in 2009. Excavations in the complex unearthed the remains of iron smelting sites, wharves and other brick structures, dating back to the 2nd/3rd century AD. The discoveries of furnaces, tuyeres and iron slag attest to Sungai Batu’s role as the centre for primary iron production, employing the bloomery method. The study suggests that Ancient Kedah appeared as one of the hubs for the trans-Asiatic trade network with the rise of the iron industry, while its economic complexity grew steadily in successive centuries. The early emergence of Ancient Kedah was a development synchronous with the later phase of the Indian-Southeast Asian exchange network between the 2nd to the 4th century AD when inter and intra-regional trade intensified. Due to its favourable geological features, strategic location with a suitable ecozone, as well as being a thriving centre for primary iron production, Ancient Kedah emerged as an important harbour. It was this trading and industrial past, the article will argue, that contributed to the rise of other economic hubs within Ancient Kedah, such as Pengkalan Bujang and Kampung Sungai Mas, which eventually developed into entrepôts after the 5th century AD.

Historical Outline of Iron Mining and Production in the Area of Present-Day Poland

The article presents the history of iron ore mining and production in present-day Poland and takes into account mining and production techniques and the influence of mining on the development of the surrounding areas. Examples of development are presented for the most important iron ore mining centers established since the period of the so-called Roman influences—Lower Silesia in the region of Tarchalice and the Świętokrzyskie region in the area of Góry Świętokrzyskie (Świętokrzyskie Mountains). The oldest traces of underground iron ore mining in Poland date back to the 7th–5th century B.C., and iron production dates back from the 1st century B.C. in the Częstochowa region where economically significant iron ore exploitation started in the 14th century and lasted until the 20th century. Studies showed that the development of iron ore mining in today’s Poland was associated with significant events in the country’s history, for example, with the expansion of a network of fortified castles in Silesia or with the industrial revolution. In each case, the increase in iron production resulted in the development and growth of the surrounding areas.