Potential outcomes of work integration social enterprises for people who are homeless, at risk of homelessness, or transitioning out of homelessness

Purpose Social enterprise has the potential to serve as a mechanism of social and economic opportunity for persons experiencing homelessness. This paper aims to identify potential outcomes of work integration social enterprises (WISEs) for people who are homeless, at risk of homelessness, or transitioning out of homelessness. Design/methodology/approach Searches of 14 databases were completed using keywords and subject headings pertaining to homelessness, social enterprise and employment, respectively. These searches were then combined to identify literature concerning WISEs with homeless populations. The initial search yielded 784 unique articles. Through screening, 29 articles were selected and independently coded to establish themes. Findings The analysis identified the potential for WISEs to contribute positively to the lives of the target population in the areas of connection to the community, employment skill building, mental health, personal agency and empowerment, relationship-building, structure and time use, financial stability and housing. There were less positive and mixed findings regarding substance use, crime/delinquency, physical health and transition to mainstream employment. Future research should further explore causal relationships between WISE approaches and strategies and their potential implications for persons emerging from homelessness. Originality/value Prior to this research, there have not been any recent publications that synthesize the existing body of literature to evaluate the potential outcomes of WISE participation for homeless populations. This paper lays the groundwork for future empirical studies.

Developing and Validating a Venue Stimuli-Local Image Fit Scale

Few studies in sport marketing have examined the formative role of venue stimuli in affecting sport spectators. As such, the fi eld currently lacks methodological direction for dealing with venue stimuli as a means to understand the sport spectator experience. Research is needed to inform academics and practitioners about the appropriate use and potential outcomes of venue stimuli, particularly as they relate to destination image and local place. Given the notable lack of investigation on this topic, this study was exploratory in nature, with the purposes of developing and validating a sport venue stimuli and local image fi t (SIF) scale. The development process of the SIF scale comprised the six stages of scale development recommended by previous scholars. Th e scale developed in this study provides a reliable and valid instrument designed to assess the extent to which sensory stimuli in the sport venue are congruent with local image, thus offering practitioners and academics a means to understand how inimitable elements of the local culture enrich the venue experience when they become intertwined with spectators’ sensory experience.

Recreational Drug Using Behaviour and Legal Benzylpiperazine Party Pills

<p>Benzylpiperazine (BZP) is a stimulant drug that produces effects similar to amphetamines (Campbell, Cline, Evans, Lloyd, & Peck, 1973). It has been sold legally in New Zealand in the form of 'party pills' since 2000. The legal status of BZP party pills has been debated in New Zealand as the media reported cases of apparent overdoses and adverse reactions leading to hospitalization (Brogden, 2005; Crewdson, 2007; Reiber, 2005; Rankin, 2006). Representatives of the BZP party pill industry publicly defended their product claiming that BZP party pills were reducing substance related harm by reducing illicit substance use (Bowden, 2007b, p.1). They also claimed that banning BZP would result in an increase in use of illicit substances, especially methamphetamine or 'P' (Barnett, 2007). The overall aim of this thesis is to test the claims that BZP party pills reduce substance related harm by reducing illicit substance use, and to identify potential outcomes of a BZP party pill ban. In addition, the perceived risks of party pill and other drug use will be examined. In chapter one I review key concepts relating to BZP party pill use: recreational drug use, harm reduction, and risk perception. In chapter two the history and New Zealand context of BZP party pills are reviewed. In chapter three, study one qualitatively analyzes BZP party pill marketing material in an attempt to describe the culture and discourse promoted by the BZP party pill industry. This analysis demonstrated that BZP party pills were primarily marketed as part of a recreational drug using culture. In chapter four, study two quantitatively investigated whether BZP party pill use was associated with reduced levels of illicit substance use in a sample (N=796) of first year university students. This study also examined the relationship between risk perception and frequency of substance use. Study two demonstrated that BZP party pill users are generally recreational poly-drug users who used illicit substances equally as often as illicit users who did not use BZP party pills. BZP party pills did not appear to reduce illicit substance use, and therefore harm. For the majority of substances there was no significant relationship between risk and use behaviour. The legal status of substances appeared to be important when participants rated the risks of use. Legal substances (including BZP) tended to be rated as safer than illegal substances. In chapter five, study three qualitatively analyzed 60 interviews with regular BZP party pill users to identify potential outcomes of a BZP party pill ban. A combination of alternatives were likely to be used by BZP party pill users, primarily illicit substances, especially ecstasy, as well as alcohol, and black market BZP. However methamphetamine (P) was an unpopular alternative. Study three also analyzed how BZP party pill users assess the costs and benefits of BZP party pill use. Decisions to use BZP party pills relied heavily on the benefits of use, rather than the costs. In chapter six, the general discussion describes the implications, ethical considerations, limitations, and outcomes of the research.</p>

Recreational Drug Using Behaviour and Legal Benzylpiperazine Party Pills

<p>Benzylpiperazine (BZP) is a stimulant drug that produces effects similar to amphetamines (Campbell, Cline, Evans, Lloyd, & Peck, 1973). It has been sold legally in New Zealand in the form of 'party pills' since 2000. The legal status of BZP party pills has been debated in New Zealand as the media reported cases of apparent overdoses and adverse reactions leading to hospitalization (Brogden, 2005; Crewdson, 2007; Reiber, 2005; Rankin, 2006). Representatives of the BZP party pill industry publicly defended their product claiming that BZP party pills were reducing substance related harm by reducing illicit substance use (Bowden, 2007b, p.1). They also claimed that banning BZP would result in an increase in use of illicit substances, especially methamphetamine or 'P' (Barnett, 2007). The overall aim of this thesis is to test the claims that BZP party pills reduce substance related harm by reducing illicit substance use, and to identify potential outcomes of a BZP party pill ban. In addition, the perceived risks of party pill and other drug use will be examined. In chapter one I review key concepts relating to BZP party pill use: recreational drug use, harm reduction, and risk perception. In chapter two the history and New Zealand context of BZP party pills are reviewed. In chapter three, study one qualitatively analyzes BZP party pill marketing material in an attempt to describe the culture and discourse promoted by the BZP party pill industry. This analysis demonstrated that BZP party pills were primarily marketed as part of a recreational drug using culture. In chapter four, study two quantitatively investigated whether BZP party pill use was associated with reduced levels of illicit substance use in a sample (N=796) of first year university students. This study also examined the relationship between risk perception and frequency of substance use. Study two demonstrated that BZP party pill users are generally recreational poly-drug users who used illicit substances equally as often as illicit users who did not use BZP party pills. BZP party pills did not appear to reduce illicit substance use, and therefore harm. For the majority of substances there was no significant relationship between risk and use behaviour. The legal status of substances appeared to be important when participants rated the risks of use. Legal substances (including BZP) tended to be rated as safer than illegal substances. In chapter five, study three qualitatively analyzed 60 interviews with regular BZP party pill users to identify potential outcomes of a BZP party pill ban. A combination of alternatives were likely to be used by BZP party pill users, primarily illicit substances, especially ecstasy, as well as alcohol, and black market BZP. However methamphetamine (P) was an unpopular alternative. Study three also analyzed how BZP party pill users assess the costs and benefits of BZP party pill use. Decisions to use BZP party pills relied heavily on the benefits of use, rather than the costs. In chapter six, the general discussion describes the implications, ethical considerations, limitations, and outcomes of the research.</p>

Effects of Causes and Causes of Effects

We describe and contrast two distinct problem areas for statistical causality: studying the likely effects of an intervention (effects of causes) and studying whether there is a causal link between the observed exposure and outcome in an individual case (causes of effects). For each of these, we introduce and compare various formal frameworks that have been proposed for that purpose, including the decision-theoretic approach, structural equations, structural and stochastic causal models, and potential outcomes. We argue that counterfactual concepts are unnecessary for studying effects of causes but are needed for analyzing causes of effects. They are, however, subject to a degree of arbitrariness, which can be reduced, though not in general eliminated, by taking account of additional structure in the problem. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Statistics and Its Application, Volume 9 is March 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Why and when beliefs change: A multi-attribute value-based decision problem

Why people do or do not change their beliefs has been a long-standing puzzle. Sometimes people hold onto false beliefs despite ample contradictory evidence; sometimes they change their beliefs without sufficient reason. Here, we propose that the utility of a belief is derived from the potential outcomes of holding it. Outcomes can be internal (e.g., positive/negative feelings) or external (e.g., material gain/loss), and only some are dependent on belief accuracy. Belief change can then be understood as an economic transaction, in which the multidimensional utility of the old belief is compared against that of the new belief. Change will occur when potential outcomes alter across attributes, for example due to changing environments, or when certain outcomes are made more or less salient.

Deep Learning of Potential Outcomes

This review systematizes the emerging literature for causal inference using deep neural networks under the potential outcomes framework. It provides an intuitive introduction on how deep learning can be used to estimate/predict heterogeneous treatment effects and extend causal inference to settings where confounding is non-linear, time varying, or encoded in text, networks, and images. To maximize accessibility, we also introduce prerequisite concepts from causal inference and deep learning. The survey differs from other treatments of deep learning and causal inference in its sharp focus on observational causal estimation, its extended exposition of key algorithms, and its detailed tutorials for implementing, training, and selecting among deep estimators in Tensorflow 2 available at github.com/kochbj/Deep-Learning-for-Causal-Inference.

Protest During a Pandemic: How COVID-19 Affected Social Movements in the U.S.

This paper explores how a global health crisis affects the causes and consequences of social movements. Drawing on media coverage, press releases, emails, and other available primary data sources, we examine how the pandemic changed the opportunities and conditions for activists on the right and left and those they challenge. We begin by considering the nature of the COVID-19 pandemic and the concomitant government response, which alters the structure of political opportunities activists face. We then look at the development of a range of protest campaigns that have emerged in response, assessing changes in opportunities for activists to reach and mobilize target constituencies, the construction of grievances, nature of alliances, as well as innovation in tactics and organization. Finally, we consider the potential outcomes of these protests during the pandemic and extending afterward.