Mediating effects of self-stigma and depression on the association between autistic symptoms and recovery in patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: a cross-sectional study

Background Several studies have indicated that self-stigma is associated with depressive symptoms and could be a barrier to recovery in patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. More recently, an association between autistic symptoms and self-stigma was found in schizophrenia-spectrum patients. This study aimed to investigate the association between self-stigma, autistic and depressive symptoms, and recovery in patients with schizophrenia. Methods In total, 105 participants were evaluated using the Autism Spectrum Quotient, the Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness Scale, the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology, and the Recovery Assessment Scale to investigate autistic symptoms, self-stigma, depressive symptoms, and recovery, respectively. The relationship between self-stigma, autistic symptoms, depressive symptoms, and recovery was assessed using structural equation modeling analysis. Results Impaired attention switching, one symptom of autism, was found to positively affect stereotype endorsement, which negatively influenced recovery through depressive symptoms. Moreover, problems with communication skills negatively affected recovery through depressive symptoms. Concerning self-stigma, stereotype endorsement and perceived discrimination had a negative effect on recovery through depressive symptoms, whereas stigma resistance had a direct negative effect on recovery. Conclusions This study may provide meaningful insight into the psychological structure of recovery and could inform effective interventions for patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. This was a cross-sectionally designed study; therefore, further longitudinal studies are needed to identify the causal relationships between self-stigma, autistic and depressive symptoms, and recovery.

Mathematics-gender stereotype endorsement influences mathematics anxiety, self-concept, and performance differently in men and women

Mathematics anxiety (MA) is negatively associated with mathematics performance. Although some aspects, such as mathematics self-concept (M-self-concept), seem to modulate this association, the underlying mechanism is still unclear. In addition, the false gender-stereotype according to which women are worse than men in mathematics, can have a detrimental effect on women. Nevertheless, the role that endorsement of this stereotype can have might differ between men and women. Therefore, within a structural equational approach, we investigated how MA and mathematics self-concept relate to arithmetic performance when considering one’s mathematics-gender stereotype endorsement and gender in a large sample (N = 923) of university students. Mathematics-gender stereotype endorsement influenced arithmetic performance through different mediation patterns via MA, M-self-concept in men and women. It was linked to higher MA, lower M-self-concept, and arithmetic performance in women, while in men, its effect was generally weaker but more complex (it was linked to higher M-self-concept and slightly higher numerical anxiety component of MA). Moreover, men and women perceived the questions included in the considered instruments differently, implying that their numerical scores may not be directly comparable, which has even broader theoretical and methodological implications for MA research.

Endorsement of gender stereotypes in gender diverse and cisgender adolescents and their parents

Previous work has documented adolescents' gender stereotype endorsement, or the extent to which one believes men or women should embody certain traits. However, understanding of gender stereotype endorsement in gender diverse adolescents - those who identify with a gender different from their assigned sex at birth - is limited. Gender diverse adolescents' unique lived experiences with gender raise the question of whether they endorse gender stereotypes with the same frequency as cisgender adolescents. In this study, we investigated two primary research questions: (1) if gender diverse (N = 150) and cisgender (N = 174) adolescents (13 - 17 years) or their parents differed from one another in their endorsement of gender stereotypes; (2) the relationship between adolescents' and their parents' endorsement of gender stereotypes, and adolescents' predictions of their parents' endorsement of stereotypes. We found (1) no significant differences between gender diverse and cisgender adolescents in endorsement of gender stereotypes, perceptions of their parents' gender stereotype endorsement, and parents' gender stereotype endorsement, though parents endorsed stereotypes less than adolescents; and (2) adolescents' endorsement of gender stereotypes showed a weak positive association with their parents' gender stereotypes and the adolescents' predictions of their parents' stereotype endorsement, though neither correlation was significant. These results suggest that, in our sample, explicit stereotype endorsement was rare among gender diverse and cisgender adolescents and their parents.

Does it pay to act feminine? A cross-cultural study of gender stereotype endorsement and cognitive legitimacy in the evaluation of new ventures

PurposeDoes gender stereotype endorsement play a role in the customer's cognitive evaluation of new ventures owned by women entrepreneurs? The authors’ cross-cultural study integrates literature on gender stereotype endorsement and cognitive legitimacy to address this research question.Design/methodology/approachThe authors use a two-study experimental design and analyze our results by cultural context to test our hypotheses: one drawn from college students in Iran and one from working professionals in the United States.FindingsThe authors’ comparative results suggest that the evaluation of feminine versus masculine characteristics of women entrepreneurs varies depending on the evaluator's (in this case the customer's) endorsement of gender stereotypes and the cultural context. Specifically, the authors found that a new venture owned by a woman entrepreneur who displays feminine characteristics is perceived as more legitimate when the customer endorses feminine stereotypes, regardless of the country.Research limitations/implicationsThe authors’ research contributes to the literature on cognitive legitimacy and women's entrepreneurship by unveiling the cultural conditions and factors that allow women entrepreneurs to benefit from acting in a stereotypically feminine way. The authors use a binary approach to gender. Future research should extend our findings to also include a non-binary approach.Originality/valueThis study contributes to women's entrepreneurship research by unraveling the implications of gender stereotype endorsement, legitimacy and culture in customer evaluation of ventures owned by women.

Measuring the paradox of self-stigma: psychometric properties of a brief scale

Background Exposure to public stigma can lead to stereotype endorsement and resignation, which are constructs related to self-stigma. This latter phenomenon has well-documented deleterious consequences for people living with mental illness. Paradoxically, it can also lead to the empowering reactions of righteous anger and coming out proud. Aim The aim of this study was to develop and validate a brief tool to measure stereotype endorsement, righteous anger, and non-disclosure across different groups of stigmatized persons. This process was conducted in collaboration with users. Method Using focus groups with mental health professionals and people living with mental illness, 72 items were developed to measure various aspects of self-stigma. The Paradox of Self-Stigma scale (PaSS-24) containing 24 items and three subscores (stereotype endorsement, non-disclosure, and righteous anger) resulted from a calibration phase using factor analysis. This structure was cross-validated on an independent sample. Internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and convergent validity were also evaluated. Results 202 patients were assessed. The PaSS-24 demonstrated good internal validity. Internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and convergent validity estimates were also good. Conclusions The PaSS-24 is a short but psychometrically rigorous tool designed to measure self-stigma and related constructs in French language, developed in collaboration with users. The development and validation of the PaSS-24 represent a first step towards implementing and evaluating programs aimed at reducing negative consequences of self-stigma.

Individual Differences in Miserly Thinking Predict Endorsement of Racial/Ethnic Stereotypes

The “cognitive miser” metaphor is a classic characterization of mental life wherein cognitive efficiency is favored over careful and reflective thinking. A presumed implication is that reliance on intuitive processing in the absence of reflective thinking should encourage stereotyping. However, research to date has not adequately tested whether proclivities to engage reflective thinking correspond with less stereotype endorsement, nor if their influence occurs independent of cognitive ability and epistemic motivation. In two studies, we conducted straightforward tests of this hypothesis by measuring individual differences in miserly or reflective thinking, cognitive ability, and epistemic motivation as unique predictors of stereotype endorsement. We utilized objective, performance-based measures of reflective thinking via the Cognitive Reflection Test. The results provide the first direct evidence for the cognitive miser hypothesis. Individual differences in miserly thinking predicted endorsements of racial/ethnic stereotypes independent of cognitive ability and epistemic motivation.

M231. INTERNALIZED STIGMA AS A PREDICTOR OF EMPLOYMENT STATUS IN PATIENTS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA

Background Employment is an important social determinant of health, especially for individuals with mental illnesses where it was found that gainful employment is crucial for both functional and clinical recovery. However, individuals with mental illnesses face significantly higher levels of unemployment compared to their counterparts without. Within different diagnoses of mental illnesses, it was found that patients with schizophrenia face higher levels of unemployment compared to patients with other diagnoses. Numerous qualitative studies have identified an association between internalized stigma and unemployment in individuals with schizophrenia, however, fewer quantitative studies have examined the specific relationship between the two factors. Therefore, we aim to elucidate the relationship between employment status and internalized stigma, and more specifically, its domains in patients with schizophrenia. Methods One hundred and seventy-nine patients with schizophrenia were included in this study. Illness severity was assessed using the Clinical Global Impression scale, internalized stigma was measured using the Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness scale (ISMI), and demographic information including employment status was collected. For the purpose of analysis, employment status was categorised into two groups, with the employed group consisting of those under full-time and part-time employment, as well as full-time students. While the unemployed group consisted of individuals who were unemployed at the time of assessment. The ISMI assesses five domains of internalized stigma, which are alienation, stereotype endorsement, discrimination experience, social withdrawal and stigma resistance. Multiple logistic regression, controlling for demographic and clinical factors, was conducted to identify the domains of internalized stigma associated with predictors of employment status. Results One hundred and two participants were employed and seventy-seven were unemployed. The employed group was younger, had shorter duration of illness, more years of education and less severe illness level (all p < .001). The unemployed group consisted of more females and divorced individuals (all p < .05). The unemployed group reported significantly higher levels of internalized stigma in the total score, as well as stereotype endorsement, discrimination experience, and social withdrawal domains (all p < .05). Mean total ISMI scores for employed and unemployed groups were 62.15 (SD = 13.69) and 67.52 (SD = 13.94) respectively. Multiple logistic regression analysis, controlling for demographic and clinical factors, found that years of education (OR = 0.835, p < .05), and two domains of the internalised stigma scale, stereotype endorsement (OR = 1.210, p < .05) and stigma resistance (OR = 0.854, p < .05), were associated with employment status. Discussion More years of education and higher level of stigma resistance were found to be associated with being employed, suggesting that stigma resistance along with education may play protective roles in both obtaining and sustaining employment in patients. Higher level of stereotype endorsement was found to be associated with being unemployed, suggesting that patients who agree with the stereotypes about mental illness may face greater difficulties in gaining and sustaining employment. Hence, tailored interventions focused on specific domains of internalized stigma may be crucial components of any services targeted at improvement of occupational functioning in patients with schizophrenia.

Interpersonal Sexual Objectification, Jezebel Stereotype Endorsement, and Justification of Intimate Partner Violence Toward Women

Sexual objectification and Jezebel stereotype endorsement, a racialized characterization of Black women as promiscuous, have been linked to harmful violence attitudes toward women. Although Black women’s experiences of sexual objectification may be compounded by racialized stereotypes, research has yet to examine how these processes intersect to influence justification of intimate partner violence toward women. This study fills this gap in the objectification literature by examining associations between interpersonal sexual objectification, endorsement of racialized stereotypes, and justification of violence toward women in a sample of Black men and women. Participants were 432 Black Americans who completed an online survey. Among Black men, we found that greater objectifying behaviors and greater endorsement of the Jezebel stereotype were associated with greater justification of violence toward women. We did not find evidence of an interaction between these two processes. Among Black women, we found an interaction between objectification experiences and stereotype endorsement, such that justification of violence was highest for Black women who endorsed the Jezebel stereotype and had more frequent experiences of sexual objectification. Violence prevention work, such as perpetrator rehabilitation programs and victim support groups, should explicitly address how stereotypical images of Black women impact their experiences of violence.