For Exercise, Relaxation, or Spirituality: Exploring Participation Motives and Conformity to Masculine Norms among Male and Female Yoga Participants

Yoga is a traditional practice from India with the potential to promote physical activity and health. Participation worldwide remains low, particularly among men. To better understand yoga participation parameters, with a special focus on what influences male participation, this study examined gender differences in participation motives and conformity to masculine norms. It also explored these factors across three participant subgroups who differed in their engagement with the physical and the more psycho-spiritual aspects of yoga. A total of 546 yoga participants (138 males, 399 females, 9 others), 18–73 years old, completed an online survey that included an adapted version of the Exercise Motivation Inventory–2 and three subscales from the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory–46. Results showed significant gender differences in participation motives and conformity to masculine norms. Females were more motivated by positive affect, health/fitness, nimbleness, Mind–Body integration, and coping/stress management, whereas males were more motivated by supplementary activity and competition/social recognition. These differences should be considered in tailoring messages to promote uptake and continued participation. Furthermore, males were more likely than females to conform to emotional control and heterosexual self-presentation masculine norms. Future research may examine how differences in masculine norm adherence influences uptake, particularly among men.

Trans Masculinity: Comparing Trans Masculine Individuals’ and Cisgender Men’s Conformity to Hegemonic Masculinity

Introduction Masculinity and masculine norms are still relevant in the current social context. Literature showed that some masculine norms could be considered protective health buffers, while traditional masculinity has negative consequences on men’s behaviors, relationships, and health. Methods In the present study, we aimed at investigating trans masculine and cisgender men’s levels of adherence to different dimensions of hegemonic masculinity. A total of 200 participants (100 trans masculine people and 100 cisgender men) took part in the study. Results Results exhibit that trans masculine individuals showed higher scores than cisgender men on the dimensions of emotional control and self-reliance, whereas cisgender men showed higher endorsement of norms such as heterosexual self-presentation and power over women. Conclusions Results are discussed in light of the minority stress model and masculinity threat theory. Policy Implications The present work should act as a reminder of the pressure that trans masculine people may feel to conform to certain aspects of hegemonic masculinity. This may have the adaptive function of protecting them from the discrimination and threats that they expect from others.

Dark Triad traits as predictors of adherence to traditional masculine norms in men

The present study examined whether Dark Triad traits explain variance in men’s adherence to traditional masculine norms (Playboy, Self-Reliance, Emotional Control, Winning, Violence, Heterosexual Self-Presentation, Risk-Taking, and Power over Women). Two-hundred and thirty-seven English speaking men (aged 18 to 62 years) completed online versions of the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-III, the Narcissistic Personality Inventory, the Mach-IV, and the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-29. Results from regression analyses showed that the psychopathic trait Callous Affect positively predicted men’s Need to Win, Emotional Control, Violence, and Power Over Women; Erratic Lifestyle was a positive predictor of Risk-Taking; and Antisocial Behaviour was a positive predictor of Playboy. Machiavellianism predicted only Violence. The Narcissistic sub-trait Leadership positively predicted Risk-Taking; Manipulativeness predicted Risk-Taking and Violence; Superiority predicted Risk-Taking and Power over Women; Vanity predicted Self-Reliance; and Exhibitionism predicted Emotional Control. We conclude that whilst Callous Affect appears to hold the highest predictive validity, the Dark Triad traits differentially predict adherence to specific masculine norms.

Masculinity & Objectification: A phenomenological study of contemporary shifts within masculinity

<p>Notions of masculinity are changing. Many men conduct themselves in ways that blunt traditional hegemonic masculine norms of sexism and homophobia. Do these changes represent movement toward gender equality, or are they workings of an adaptive and amorphous system of power relations that is reshaping to fit with the times? This thesis is grounded within epistemologies of feminist standpoint theory and takes a phenomenological approach to methodology in investigating how men construct and experience their perceptions of masculinity and gender performance within homosocial networks. I conducted three focus groups with different male friend groups, and one focus group of a women’s friend group. These are supplemented with an autoethnographic focus on reflexivity in which I investigate my own thoughts, reflections, and past life experiences in concert with these focus groups. I used objectification as a main theme of study both to understand the more nuanced qualities of its role within gender relations, and as a springboard to understand the wider ramifications of what attitudes toward objectification represented. These focus groups demonstrated wide gaps in phenomenological accounts and understandings of everyday life activity both between women and men, and between men and other men. Two themes emerged from the data. The first trend involved contemporary constructions of masculinity that incorporate historically unmasculine behaviors and attitudes. This is explored within debates of R. W. Connell’s (2005) theory of hegemonic masculinity and two of its offshoots: inclusive masculinity (Anderson 2009), and hybrid masculinity (Bridges & Pascoe 2014). The second theme focused on empathy and the difficulties in its development when relationships of power, domination, and difference are involved. I argue that empathy needs to be developed in ways that favor more affective and compassionate forms of responding to others’ emotions, rather than cognitive or role-taking forms that aim to understand others’ emotions from their perspective. Finally, I incorporate these themes to discuss the possibilities, limitations, and complexities in forming a profeminist consciousness in men. This thesis aims to contribute to debates around recent changes and potential ‘softening’ in the structure of hegemonic masculinity by retaining a critical focus on relationships of power and domination. In doing so, I hope to skirt between the optimism of inclusive masculinity and the cynicism of hybrid masculinity to develop a model of profeminist consciousness that welcomes the softening of masculinity but places equal value in critically reflecting on one’s power, privilege, and position within society.</p>

Masculinity & Objectification: A phenomenological study of contemporary shifts within masculinity

<p>Notions of masculinity are changing. Many men conduct themselves in ways that blunt traditional hegemonic masculine norms of sexism and homophobia. Do these changes represent movement toward gender equality, or are they workings of an adaptive and amorphous system of power relations that is reshaping to fit with the times? This thesis is grounded within epistemologies of feminist standpoint theory and takes a phenomenological approach to methodology in investigating how men construct and experience their perceptions of masculinity and gender performance within homosocial networks. I conducted three focus groups with different male friend groups, and one focus group of a women’s friend group. These are supplemented with an autoethnographic focus on reflexivity in which I investigate my own thoughts, reflections, and past life experiences in concert with these focus groups. I used objectification as a main theme of study both to understand the more nuanced qualities of its role within gender relations, and as a springboard to understand the wider ramifications of what attitudes toward objectification represented. These focus groups demonstrated wide gaps in phenomenological accounts and understandings of everyday life activity both between women and men, and between men and other men. Two themes emerged from the data. The first trend involved contemporary constructions of masculinity that incorporate historically unmasculine behaviors and attitudes. This is explored within debates of R. W. Connell’s (2005) theory of hegemonic masculinity and two of its offshoots: inclusive masculinity (Anderson 2009), and hybrid masculinity (Bridges & Pascoe 2014). The second theme focused on empathy and the difficulties in its development when relationships of power, domination, and difference are involved. I argue that empathy needs to be developed in ways that favor more affective and compassionate forms of responding to others’ emotions, rather than cognitive or role-taking forms that aim to understand others’ emotions from their perspective. Finally, I incorporate these themes to discuss the possibilities, limitations, and complexities in forming a profeminist consciousness in men. This thesis aims to contribute to debates around recent changes and potential ‘softening’ in the structure of hegemonic masculinity by retaining a critical focus on relationships of power and domination. In doing so, I hope to skirt between the optimism of inclusive masculinity and the cynicism of hybrid masculinity to develop a model of profeminist consciousness that welcomes the softening of masculinity but places equal value in critically reflecting on one’s power, privilege, and position within society.</p>

“Deadly”, “fierce”, “shameful”: notions of antiretroviral therapy, stigma and masculinities intersecting men’s life-course in Blantyre, Malawi

Background Stigma and masculinity represent persistent barriers in delivering successful HIV interventions to men. Our study examined community perceptions of HIV and anti-retroviral therapy (ART) and their implications for men on ART across the life course in Blantyre, Malawi. Methods Our qualitative study is based on 72 face-to-face semi-structured interviews. Participants were selected purposively and included men on ART (with suppressed and unsuppressed viral loads), adult male community members irrespective of HIV status and other HIV stakeholders such as health personnel and program implementers. Interviews were conducted in Chichewa and English, transcribed verbatim and analyzed thematically in NVivo 12. We applied the socio-ecological model as our theoretical framework as well as a “life-course” perspective. Results Our findings highlight lingering negative perceptions towards ART in general and towards PLHIV irrespective of viral load suppression. With intersecting notions of masculinity and stigma, men’s descriptions of anticipated stigma in their relationships and when visiting health facilities dominated. Stigma was experienced at the personal, interpersonal, facility and community level. Yet, men living with HIV were perceived differently throughout the life-course, with young sexually active men seen as the most stigmatized group and older men seen as drawing resilience from a greater range of masculine norms. Some men of all ages displayed “transformative” masculinities independent of stigma and community expectations. Conclusions We propose the “life-course” as a useful concept for studies on masculinity, HIV and stigma. Considering gendered constructions of “respectable” midlife-older age vis-à-vis younger age, and how they influence stigma as well as uptake and adherence to ART might lead to more targeted services for men that build on “transformative masculinities”.

'Controlled by' and 'Controlling with' Sex: Comparing Portrayal of 'Nooran' and 'Haseena Begum' - Two Female Characters of Khushwant Singh's Modern Classic: Train to Pakistan

Khushwant Singh's Train to Pakistan (1956), a quintessential post-colonial novel and a lucid modern classic - is based on the societal conditions and upheavals of during and post-liberation Pak - Indo subcontinent in 1947. Having set the plot of his novel in a fictional Punjabi village 'Mano Majra' - located near to the India - Pakistan border, Singh attempted to analyze how human relationships change in a tormented - apocalyptic society. However, this paper aims at studying how in an overtly masculine society as portrayed in the novel, amidst the fright of religious persecution, sexualized violence, the fallaciousness of mob rule, and formation of new identities via displacement - two of the novel's main female characters - Nooran, who is sexually subjugated within the text, and Haseena Begum, who uses her bodily charm to meet her days ends, stand out differently due to the disparity in their social orientations, and life choices. To explore the posed query, this paper will use Virginia Woolf's ideas from -"Professions for Women" (1942) an article apparently archaic today, but the ideas posited in it were very much contemporary to the novel's setting, as well as Julia Kristeva's apparently contemporary ideas in - "Woman Can Never Be Defined" (1974), where these critics talked about women's sexuality, their professions, their privileged relationship with father/paternal figure of their family, and how all these lead them to abidance towards prejudiced masculine norms set by the society.