Reference to dependencies established in multiple-wh questions

In discourse, a universal statement establishes a dependency between sets of objects, which can support the evaluation of singular pronouns in a subsequent sentence. Two well-known phenomena involving such reference to a dependency are quantificational subordination and telescoping. This paper argues that a multiple-wh question admitting a pair-list answer can support subordination and telescoping, just like universal statements. Accordingly, the relevant phenomena are classified into two kinds of reference to dependencies, called ‘question subordination’ and ‘question telescoping’, which exhibit different properties. A dynamic family-of-questions analysis is developed to account for these phenomena. Briefly, a multiple- wh question generates a set of sub-questions, i.e., a family of questions, and then the set is transformed into a set of possible pair-list answers. Following Dynamic Plural Logic, the family of questions and possible pair-list answers encode different kinds of dependencies. Accessing the dependency encoded in a possible pair-list answer gives rise to question subordination, whereas accessing the dependency encoded in the family of questions gives rise to question telescoping.

The Epistemic and Pragmatic Function of Dichotomous Claims Based on Statistical Hypothesis Tests

Researchers commonly make dichotomous claims based on continuous test statistics. Many have branded the practice as misuse of statistics, and criticize scientists for suffering from “dichotomania”. However, the role dichotomous claims play in science is not primarily a statistical one, but an epistemological and pragmatic one. The epistemological function of dichotomous claims consists in transforming data into factual statements that can falsify a universal statement. This transformation requires pre-specified methodological decision procedures such as statistical hypothesis testing (e.g., Neyman-Pearson tests). From the perspective of methodological falsificationism these decision procedures are necessary, as probabilistic statements (e.g. continuous test statistics) cannot function as falsifiers of substantive hypotheses. However, they are not sufficient since for dichotomous claims to have any implication regarding theoretical claims about phenomena, there should be a valid derivation chain linking theoretical, experimental and data models. The pragmatic function of dichotomous claims is facilitating scrutiny and criticism among peers by generating contestable statements, a process referred to by Popper as 'conjectures and refutations', through which we can determine which theories withstand scrutiny the best. Abandoning dichotomous claims to combat the misuse of statistics would not improve scientific inferences but will sacrifice these crucial epistemic and pragmatic functions.

A GDPR Implementation Guide for the Insurance Industry

Data Protection has always been an issue of concern for businesses across the globe. Laws addressing the Universal Statement for Human Rights have been set as early as 1948 and, as years go by, awareness further strengthens legislative actions. Through his work at Interamerican insurance company, the author shows that alignment with legislation, though perceived as a resource-intensive, counter-productive process, may be turned into an opportunity for fine tuning, promoting the operations of a company, and raising the trust towards IT.

FEATURE OF ISLAM WHICH IS DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER RELIGIONS

<p><em>The few people who do not understand the meaning of nationalism and the easiness of religions try to attack nationalism by the name of religion without comprehending the sublime meanings of Islam, which have made holy nationalism and called for easiness and facilitation. Easiness and facilitation is considered the first feature of the Islamic civilization, one aspect of its manifestations, and the first that encourages its acceptance by way of its carrying values, legislations, manners and cultural patterns. The importance of this paper is to show easiness and facilitation that Muslim civilization brought and applied in reality. Such feature is what proved such civilization’s reality and by which it won amazing bets in wars of challenge and interaction with the other world civilizations. </em><em>Due to this, the inductive and historical approach has been adopted to show Islam’s easiness and facilitation. Among the results of this paper is the revelation that Islam put the first universal statement in rights of citizenship without discriminating between followers of religions, doctrines, race, or color. Also, easiness in Islam has established social solidarity: the rich give the poor; and </em><em>the orphan seeks all Muslims as fathers caring for him. </em></p> <br /><em></em>

Need There Be a Problem of Induction?

The problem of induction has long been one of the central problems of empiricist epistemology. There are two main versions of this problem: to justify a strictly universal statement on the basis of a finite set of singular statements and to justify a new singular statement on the basis of some finite set of accepted singular statements. In both cases it is assumed that we have a set of singular statements with which to begin and that these singular statements are, somehow, provided by observation; neither of these assumptions will be disputed in this paper. But there is another assumption without which there might well be no problem of induction:A. Any synthetic statement which is to be accepted as known must be justified on the basis of observation.It is only because philosophers assume A that they are faced with the problem of showing how we can infer from statements which have been justified by observation to others which have not. It is this assumption which will concern us here, for if there are no adequate grounds for accepting A, the problem of induction may not arise at all.

A seventeenth-century chronicle by Ibn al-mukhtār: a critical study of Ta'rīkh al-fattāsh

In 1853, Heinrich Barth visited Timbuktu, and ‘was so successful as to have an opportunity of pursuing a complete history of the Kingdom of Songhay. … These annals, according to the universal statement of the learned people of Negroland, were written by a distinguished person of the name of Ahmed Baba’. With this chronicle at his disposal, Barth was able, for the first time, to present a meaningful outline of the history of the Songhay empire. Circumstances prevented Barth bringing back a complete copy of the manuscript. In the 1890's, however, following the French occupation, three manuscripts of that chronicle reached Paris, to be edited by 0. Houdas and E. Benoist, translated by Houdas, and published in 1898–1900. Houdas proved that this chronicle, Ta'rīkh al-Sūdān, had been written not by Ahmad Bābā; but by another scholar of Timbuktu, ‘Abd al-Rahmān al-Sa'dī, born in 1596. The chronicle ends in 1655, which may be taken as the date of its completion.

New Horizons in Patristic Theology: A Survey of Recent Work

Since the period between the two world wars the study of the Fathers has gradually taken a new direction. In the first place, the age of the masters was past; their brilliant, all-embracing structures laid the foundations, it is true, of the modern critical age, while at the same time they have left us with a profound sense of dissatisfaction. Many of the great classics of patristic scholarship of the past attained the level of universal statement only by means of a swift and perhaps over-hasty reading of the evidence — a good example of this would be some of Harnack's monumental work — and so there remains the endless task of revision, of the painstaking work of filling in a mosaic of detail, without which the broad vision of truth is unattainable. In the second place, ours is a perhaps more historico-critical attitude towards some of the areas of patristic doctrine. Although it is hazardous to make a generalization, it may be said that the modern approach to the Old and the New Testament is apt to be widely divergent from that of many of the Fathers of the Golden Age; and our task is rather to understand the techniques which they used in solving their exegetical problems.