Edgar Wind on Experiment and Metaphysics

The paper presents a detailed interpretation of Edgar Wind’s Experiment and Metaphysics (1934), a unique work on the philosophy of physics which broke with the Neo-Kantian tradition under the influence of American pragmatism. Taking up Cassirer’s interpretation of physics, Wind develops a holistic theory of the experiment and a constructivist account of empirical facts. Based on the concept of embodiment which plays a key role in Wind’s later writings on art history, he argues, however, that the outcomes of measurements are contingent. He then proposes an anti-Kantian conception of a metaphysics of nature. For him, nature is an unknown totality which manifests itself in discrepancies between theories and experiment, and hence the theory formation of physics can increasingly approximate the structure of nature. It is shown that this view is ambiguous between a transcendental, metaphysical realism in Kant’s sense and an internal realism in Putnam’s sense. Wind’s central claim is that twentieth century physics offers new options for resolving Kant’s cosmological antinomies. In particular, he connected quantum indeterminism with the possibility of human freedom, a connection that Cassirer sharply opposed.

Competence/Performance

This chapter considers the distinction between Conventional E(xternal)-languages and non-conventional I(nternal, intensional)-languages. The problems with traditional external, extensionalist, especially Quinean behavioristic, and more generally what I call “Superficialist”approaches are discussed, specifically the problems Quineans have raised about how to distinguish between extensionally equivalent grammars, and between explicit from implemented (or “implicit”) rules and structures. The chapter will also consider less purely behaviorstic, but still superficalist objections to a Chomskyan internal realism associated with the work ofWittgenstein, Ryle, Baker and Hacker, Chater, and “Kripkenstein” (or Saul Kripke’s well-known interpretation of Wittgenstein), according to which there can be no factual basis for claiming speakers are following one set of grammatical rules rather than another.

Scientific realism in the history of ancient philosophy

The article is devoted to the consideration of the possibility of applying the methodological principles of scientific realism in the history of ancient philosophy. The author shows that in its strong version, scientific realism is not an appropriate basis for historical research, since it involves minimizing the number of interpretations of philosophical material of the past. Another serious drawback of applying strong versions of scientific realism in the history of philosophy is their focus on the correspondent theory of truth. This theory does not fit the historian of philosophy, since she aims not only at creating a realistic picture of the past, but also at incorporating the philosophical ideas of the past into the modern context, therefore a coherent theory of truth is more likely to meet her objectives. After a brief review of the weak versions of realism (H. Putnam’s “internal realism”, S. Blackburn’s “quasi-realism” and “sensibility theory”), the author concludes that these kinds of realism are more suitable for the history of philosophy in general and for the history of ancient philosophy in particular. As a result, the author concludes that the historian of philosophy must take into account the objectivity and independence of the philosophical ideas of the past, and inevitably be guided by his own conceptual and terminological facilities in order to incorporate the ideas of the past into the modern philosophical context.

The Putnamian Argument (the Argument from the Rejection of Global Skepticism) [also, (O) The Argument from Reference, and (K) The Argument from the Confluence of Proper Function and Reliability]

A familiar story about reference that developed in the 1970s appeared to offer a light at the end of the tunnel of positivist theories of meaning. Coherence theories of truth and justification, paradigm shifts, and incommensurability stalked the land. Causal theories of reference (Kripke 1980) promised to change all that and restore scientific realism. But another dialectic took hold that led to what Putnam called internal realism. This chapter aims to rescue Putnam from internal realism, and to breathe new life into real realism. It also aims to rescue science from Plantinga’s argument N (and arguments O and K). That will allow an answer to perhaps the strongest link in the chain of arguments that Naturalism is epistemically self-defeating. The chapter offers a diagnosis of the central difficulty that appears to wreak havoc with the realist aspirations of causal theories of reference. Finally, a cure is offered for that malady.

Putnam, Hilary (1926–2016)

Putnam’s work spans a broad spectrum of philosophical interests, yet nonetheless reflects thematic unity in its concern over the question of realism. A critic of logical positivism, Putnam opposed verificationism and conventionalism, arguing for a realist understanding of scientific theories. He rejected the traditional conception of meaning according to which speakers’ mental states determine meaning and consequently, reference, and put forward a conception of meaning on which external reality, for example, what one talks about, contributes essentially to meaning. Further, citing what he called the division of linguistic labour, Putnam saw the conferring of meaning as a social rather than an individual enterprise. In response to the relativistic challenge that the incommensurability of different theories precludes any possibility of intertheoretical dialogue, Putnam invoked a causal theory of reference construing reference as relatively insensitive to theoretical variation, so that the continuity and rationality of science and communication are upheld. The Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics posed yet another difficulty for realism. Putnam saw quantum logic as an alternative which was compatible with realism, and argued that logic, like geometry, can be revised on the basis of empirical considerations. In the philosophy of mind, Putnam proposed functionalism, the view that mental states are characterized by function rather than material constitution. Putnam also made a substantial contribution to mathematics through his work on the insolvability of Hilbert’s tenth problem. In 1976, Putnam launched an attack on the coherence of the view he termed ‘metaphysical realism’. Arguing that relativism and scepticism are disguised forms of metaphysical realism, and likewise incoherent, he suggested an alternative, referred to as ’internal realism’. Clarification of this position and its viability as a third way between realism and relativism is the focus of Putnam’s later writings, and of much of the criticism they have incurred.

Putnam, Hilary (1926–2016)

Putnam’s work spans a broad spectrum of philosophical interests, yet nonetheless reflects thematic unity in its concern over the question of realism. The dynamic nature of Putnam's thought manifests itself in his critique and revision of some of his own significant contributions to philosophy, such as the theories of functionalism and quantum logic. The driving force underlying this dynamic is a persistent attempt to defend the notions of truth and objectivity against philosophical positions that discredit them. Beginning his career as a critic of logical positivism, Putnam opposed verificationism and conventionalism, arguing for a realist understanding of scientific theories. He rejected the traditional conception of meaning according to which speaker’ mental states determine meaning and consequently, reference, and put forward a conception of meaning on which external reality, what one talks about, contributes essentially to meaning. Further, citing what he called the division of linguistic labour, Putnam saw the conferring of meaning as a social rather than an individual enterprise. In response to the relativistic challenge that the incommensurability of different theories precludes any possibility of intertheoretical dialogue, Putnam construed reference as relatively insensitive to theoretical variation, so that the continuity and rationality of science and communication are upheld. The Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics posed yet another difficulty for realism, for it construed quantum states as probability amplitudes rather than real physical states, as is the case in classical mechanics. Putnam initially saw quantum logic as an alternative which was compatible with realism, and argued that logic, like geometry, can be revised on the basis of empirical considerations. Without retracting the general point about the feasibility of a revision of logic, Putnam eventually distanced himself from quantum logic, and pursued other ways of saving realism and solving the notorious measurement problem that plagues the Copenhagen interpretation. In the philosophy of mind, Putnam proposed functionalism, the view that mental states are characterized by function rather than material constitution. Despite the great impact of functionalism, Putnam came to the conclusion that on their own, functional state are insufficient to characterize mental states. He used his externalist theory of meaning to argue for a broader view of the mental that takes account of the mind's links to external reality and the diverse experiences of different speakers. The externalist theory of meaning thus impacts on other issues central to Putnam's philosophy. Putnam also made substantial contributions to mathematics, including is work on the insolvability of Hilbert’s tenth problem. Hilbert's 1900 list of 23 outstanding problems in mathematics set the agenda for generations of mathematicians so that progress on each one of these problems is a milestone in the history of mathematics. In 1976, Putnam launched an attack on the coherence of the view he termed ’metaphysical realism’. The metaphysical realist maintains there is a single theory that is true of the world and that its truth is absolutely objective, independently of the theory's conceptual frame and its verification procedure. Arguing that relativism and scepticism are disguised forms of metaphysical realism, and likewise incoherent, he suggested an alternative, referred to as ’internal realism’. Internal realism replaced this notion of truth with that of warranted assertability. In so doing it constituted a significant change, for it meant adopting a verificationist theory of meaning, a theory that Putnam had objected to in earlier writings. Within a few years, however, Putnam became dissatisfied with internal realism, surmising that verificationism was incoherent. Although he remained critical of some naïve versions of realism, his later philosophy is undoubtedly realist not only with regard to scientific and mathematical truth, but also with regard to moral values. Articulation of this recovered realism and its viability as an alternative to conventionalist and relativist positions is the focus of many of Putnam’s later writings, as well as much of the criticism they have incurred. Putnam's search for a philosophical position that secures a place for objective truth has always been accompanied by deep moral and social sensibilities. These sensibilities were first expressed in political activity but as of the late 1970s are also manifest in his philosophical writings. Many of Putnam's later titles bear witness to his engagement with moral issues: Meaning and the Moral Sciences (1978), Realism with a Human Face (1990a), Words and Life (1994),The Collapse of the Fact/Value Dichotomy (2002), Ethics Without Ontology (2004) and Jewish Philosophy as a Guide to Life (2008).