Wittenberg Reformers

Wittenberg reformers supported the transfer of formerly Catholic Church properties to government possession. This secularization of church property did not mean a rejection of religion per se; on the contrary, secularization of church property meant that political rulers consolidated the scattered ecclesiastical properties and possessions into a common chest so that they could support the reform of the church. While Martin Luther and Andreas Karlstadt denounced mendicant orders for their begging lifestyle, they called for cities to care for their resident poor so that begging would be obsolete. Their critique became the catalyst for change, including an educated pastorate with preaching as a central component of worship, schools for boys and girls, and a system of poor relief funded by monastic foundations, confraternities, and donations. In the transfer of property to the common chest, Wittenberg reformers were crucial in providing the theological foundations for the transition to a centralized poor relief system.

Migration and Religious Refugees

One of the biggest impacts on poverty in early modern Europe was migration. As various circumstances and conflicts generated a growing population of religious refugees in many cities, the magnitude of need overwhelmed local poor relief structures. This crisis prompted the development of poor relief outside of civic jurisdiction and prompted the development of separate ways to care for the foreign poor. For example, John a Lasco led a religiously autonomous foreigners’ church in London, where he emphasized commitment to poor relief among the exiles. This chapter examines the religious interpretations of the migration experience, its role in shaping religious identity, and the impact of migration on poor relief. By establishing poor relief systems for refugees, the foreigner churches, or stranger churches, relieved city governments of the additional financial burden of caring for refugees and simultaneously set up a form of church management to aid religious refugees.

Conclusion

Religious reformers in sixteenth-century Europe were integral to the development and implementation of poor relief programs. They effectively utilized theological justification through writings, sermons, and strategic political persuasion to gain support and funding for social welfare. The reformers’ unique positions as ecclesiastical authorities allowed them to connect care for the poor with one’s practice of devotion to God and religious ideals of generosity and compassion. The establishment of these reforms emerged in the context of an expanding migration of religious refugees, who required relief but were at first poorly received by city residents. One of the key components of determining poor relief was the importance of community formation and the demarcations in the process of determining poor relief coverage. Ultimately, religious reformers served as a major driving force in the efforts toward poverty alleviation and community motivation in the care for the poor; and their efforts impacted the development of poor relief.

Swiss Brethren and Dutch Mennonites

Severe persecution and frequent migration threatened the survival of various Anabaptist groups and their leaders who lacked a salary or benefits, unlike magisterial Protestant reformers or Catholic clergy. Voluntary leaders like Menno Simons had to sacrifice a stable family life because of traveling visitations and forced migrations. Considered outlaws in most places, Anabaptists could not rely on any state support. The forms of poor relief among Swiss Brethren (including south German and Austrian Anabaptists) and Dutch Mennonites emerged out of a biblical rationale that the church of true believers practiced mutual aid out of love and obedience to Christ’s precepts and example. Anabaptist leaders relied a great deal on the networks of scattered Anabaptist communities, even though any aid to wanted Anabaptist fugitives could lead to criminal punishment. Mutual aid became a defining characteristic of the Anabaptists as a clear sign of faith and good works.

Johannes Bugenhagen

Johannes Bugenhagen’s church orders revealed the lasting imprint of religious values on the poverty policies of many German cities. Originally from Pomerania (the coastal region of present-day Poland and Germany), Bugenhagen crafted legislation that included practical measures for poor relief. As a Wittenberg pastor, professor, and organizer of church reform, Bugenhagen became the diplomat for translating Lutheran ideals into practical laws that would reorganize or create new institutions of poor relief in north German cities, as well as in Scandinavia. In his negotiations with city councils and political rulers, he highlighted an emerging need to support poor pastors who, as married clergy, now had families to support. His experience of creating laws for diverse circumstances led him to delineate flexible policies with an adaptable understanding of the deserving poor.

Heinrich Bullinger

Although Ulrich Zwingli started the Swiss Reformation in Zürich, his successor Heinrich Bullinger was the main stabilizer for the reform movement during his forty-plus years as chief minister from 1532 to 1575. Bullinger’s advocacy through his sermons and speeches (Fürträge) before the city council regularly reminded the politicians of their duty to care for the poor. Although the Zurich council circumscribed the role of ministers to spiritual matters, Bullinger believed that ensuring a proper poor relief system was an important part of the pastors’ ministry to the people. Because church funds were in secular control, Bullinger’s involvement in poor relief emerged from his development as a church leader in which he justified his social-political critiques against the lack of effective poor relief based on Scripture, church history, Christian ethics, and socioeconomic needs. His persistence urged the Zürich council to reconsider and revise its poor relief policies to include poverty prevention.

Hutterites in Moravia

The Hutterites endured generations of persecution, forced migration, as well as loss of property and legal recourse often resulting in desperate poverty. Although plagued by internal conflicts from the beginning, they represented the most radical and most creative form of communal support in the sixteenth century. While religion was the reason for their suffering, it was also the reason for their resilience. As recorded in The Chronicle, Hutterites highlighted their trials and tribulations, as well as their successful reconciliation with other factions. Their leaders, such as Jacob Hutter, Peter Riedemann, and Peter Walpot provided the theological rationale for the practice of the community of goods, which required the total sharing of goods to care for the entire community. The surrender of all temporal goods was a requirement to join the Hutterite colonies (Bruderhof). This practice of communal property became the central marker of Hutterite piety as designated leaders managed the collective resources to alleviate the needs of their community.

Introduction

During the Reformation, religious leaders took a more decisive stance on the way that churches should deal with poverty. This study examines the role of church leaders in the development of poor relief reforms to provides a greater understanding of how religious ideals and rationales fueled the changes in church and society.While Catholics generally emphasized interpersonal charity, early Protestant reformers sought to eliminate begging by setting up or supporting poor relief institutions. Pastors and lay leaders helped to create and establish various approaches to alleviating poverty. While some church leaders sought to drive their local magistrates to deal with poverty within their communities, others initiated change mainly within their own churches. However, poor relief faced many practical challenges like raising money, new outbreaks of the plague, and the mass influx of religious refugees. Hence for minority Reformed and Anabaptist communities, church leaders had to find new ways to build and support their fledgling religious communities.

John Calvin

This chapter investigates the extensive work of French refugee pastors for the Reformation of church and society in Geneva. John Calvin with other French Reformed pastors were able to help create a separate relief fund for religious refugees as a parallel organization to the general hospital through the financial support of wealthier refugees and transnational network of donors under the management of church leaders. The establishment of the French Fund provided a relief agency for refugees that did not rely on any state funding. As a model in Reformed religion, this institution in the church and the Consistory helped reinforce the Reformed religious identity among displaced French Protestants. As a spokesperson for the pastors, Calvin helped establish a safety net for poor foreigners by preaching on communal care and generosity, by reorganizing church leadership and discipline, and by supporting a special fund for refugees in response to the practical needs arising from migration.