Prominence and Expectation in Speech and Music Through the Lens of Pitch Processing

Speech and music reflect extraordinary aspects of human cognitive abilities. Pitch, as an important parameter in the auditory domain, has been the focus of previous research on the relations between speech and music. The present study continues this line of research by focusing on two aspects of pitch processing: pitch prominence and melodic expectation. Specifically, we examined the perceived boundary of prominence for focus/accent in speech and music, plus the comparison between the pitch expectation patterns of music and speech. Speech (Mandarin Chinese) and music stimuli were created with different interval steps that increased from 1 semitone to 12 semitones from the third to the fourth word/note of a sentence/melody. The results showed that ratings of both accent/focus and expectation/surprise increased with increasing semitone distance from the baseline (though this pattern was mixed with tonal stability profiles for the melodies). Nevertheless, the perceived boundary of prominence was different for music and speech, with the boundary for detecting prominence in speech higher than that in music. Expectation also showed different patterns for speech and music. The results thus favor the suggestion that speech prosody and music melody tend to require specialized pitch patterns unique to their own respective communication purposes.

Does unfairness sound wrong? A cross-domain investigation of expectations in music and social decision-making

This study was interested in investigating the existence of a shared psychological mechanism for the processing of expectations across domains. The literature on music and language shows that violations of expectations produce similar neural responses and violating the expectation in one domain may influence the processing of stimuli in the other domain. Like music and language, our social world is governed by a system of inherent rules or norms, such as fairness. The study therefore aimed to draw a parallel to the social domain and investigate whether a manipulation of melodic expectation can influence the processing of higher-level expectations of fairness. Specifically, we aimed to investigate whether the presence of an unexpected melody enhances or reduces participants' sensitivity to the violations of fairness and the behavioural reactions associated with these. We embedded a manipulation of melodic expectation within a social decision-making paradigm, whereby musically expected and unexpected stimuli will be simultaneously presented with fair and unfair divisions in a third-party altruistic punishment game. Behavioural and electroencephalographic responses were recorded. Results from the pre-planned analyses show that participants are less likely to punish when melodies are more unexpected and that violations of fairness norms elicit medial frontal negativity (MFN)-life effects. Because no significant interactions between melodic expectancy and fairness of the division were found, results fail to provide evidence of a shared mechanism for the processing of expectations. Exploratory analyses show two additional effects: (i) unfair divisions elicit an early attentional component (P2), probably associated with stimulus saliency, and (ii) mid-value divisions elicit a late MFN-like component, probably reflecting stimulus ambiguity. Future studies could build on these results to further investigate the effect of the cross-domain influence of music on the processing of social stimuli on these early and late components.

The Feeling of Leading

A distinction is made between part-writing and voice leading. Even though music may exhibit correct part-writing, the music may nevertheless sounds like it is meandering aimlessly: voice leading adds the sense of tending, yearning, resolution, or momentum that contributes to the feeling of music “going somewhere.” Research on melodic expectation is summarized. When the music fails to conform to expected voice movements, the music is likely to evoke a wandering or purposeless quality. Predictability transforms good part-writing into good voice leading. Predictability is increased when musical patterns follow the norms and clichés of established styles. Familiarity with a given musical work also increases predictability. For unfamiliar works, predictability is increased when music makes use of recurring or imitative figures, themes, or motives.

Style-Dependency of Melodic Expectation

In theories of auditory scene analysis and melodic implication/realization, melodic expectation results from an interaction between top-down processes (assumed to be learned and schema-based) and bottom-up processes (assumed innate, based on Gestalt principles). If principles of melodic expectation are partly acquired, it should be possible to manipulate them – to condition listeners' expectations. In this study, the resistance of three bottom-up expectation principles to learning was tested experimentally. In Experiment 1, expectations for stepwise motion (pitch proximity) were manipulated by conditioning listeners to large melodic leaps; preference for small intervals was reduced after a brief exposure. In Experiment 2, expectations for leaps to rise and steps to fall (step declination) were manipulated by exposing listeners to melodies comprising rising steps and falling leaps; this reduced preferences for descending seconds and thirds. Experiment 3 did not find and hence failed to alter the expectation for small intervals to be followed by an interval in the same direction (step inertia). The results support the theory that bottom-up principles of melodic perception are partly learned from exposure to pitch patterns in music. The long-term learning process could be reinforced by exposure to speech based on similar organization principles.

Probabilistic Models of Melodic Interval

Two probabilistic models of melodic interval are compared. In the Markov model, the “interval probability” of a note is defined by the corpus frequency of its melodic interval (the interval to the previous note), conditioned on the previous one or two intervals; in the Gaussian model, the interval probability is a simple mathematical function of the size of the note’s melodic interval and its position in relation to the range of the melody. In both models, this interval probability is then multiplied by the probability of the note’s scale degree to yield its actual probability. The two models were tested on four corpora of tonal melodies using cross-entropy. The Markov model yielded a somewhat lower (better) cross-entropy than the Gaussian model, but is also much more complex, requiring far more parameters. The models were also tested on melodic expectation data, and on their ability to predict the distribution of intervals in a corpus. Possible ways of improving the models are discussed, as well as their broader implications for music cognition.

Analytical Approaches to Melody in Selected Arias by Puccini

Studies of Puccini’s melodies have generally assumed a cellular or motivic construction and have employed corresponding analytical approaches. Such motivic arguments seek to explore the coherence and interrelatedness of pitch structures, but seldom venture into broader issues of diachronic process and hermeneutics. By applying a form of linear-contrapuntal reductive analysis, allied with theories of melodic expectation, to selected arias from Puccini, this article argues that Puccini’s melodies not only comply with traditional patterns of counterpoint and voice leading but also exploit them to generate effective dynamic linear shapes. Correlations are suggested between these analytical results and the drama.

Measuring Musical Forces

RECENT STUDIES CONCERNING "musical forces" suggest that listeners of tonal music may understand, experience, and create that music (in part) through a metaphorical process that maps physical motion onto musical motion. These studies argue that musical motion is shaped by a "musical gravity," a "musical magnetism," and a "musical inertia" that are analogous to their physical counterparts. The studies also found a variety of types of evidence (the distribution of patterns within compositions, improvisations, and analyses; the behavior of computer models of melodic expectation; and the responses of participants in psychological experiments). However, none of this evidence quantifies how the interaction of musical forces might account for listeners' judgments of the dynamic tendencies of notes within heard melodic patterns. This article complements and extends these studies in three ways. First, we show how a reexamination of the metaphorical bases of the forces leads to a number of hypotheses to be tested. Second, we report an experiment that tested those hypotheses by asking listeners specifically to make judgments about the experienced "strength" of presented pattern completions. Third, we report a content analysis of the distribution of the same patterns within in Schenker's Five Graphic Music Analyses.

A Model of Melodic Expectation

A model of melodic expectation is proposed. The model assigns ratings to the expectedness of melodic events. The ratings depend on the hierarchic implementation of three primary factors�stability, proximity, and direction�and one secondary factor�mobility. The model explicitly links expectancy ratings to aspects of listeners� experiences of tension in melody. An approach to temporal expectations is discussed but not quantified. The model is situated within a framework for thinking about a type of schematic melodic expectations. This article assesses the position of these expectations within the broader cognitive processes invoked in listening to music. It suggests methods for investigating the expectations empirically. Additionally, it outlines connections between the theorized expectations and the dynamic, affective contours of musical experience.