necessary being
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2021 ◽  
Vol 66 (3) ◽  
pp. 663-670
Author(s):  
Tomasz Trochanowski ◽  
Ewa Baum ◽  
Ryszard Żaba

Abstract Cooperation between doctors of various specialties and other medical specialists is the standard of care in the treatment of patients. Due to the variety of diseases and the dynamic development of medicine in general, it is difficult to be an expert in every field and know all the recommended treatments. An example of such cooperation is the joint treatment of patients with the problem of ingrown toenails. The article contains an analysis of patients who received treatment in a doctor’s office in cooperation with podiatrists. A conservative approach towards the treatment of this condition sees the patient being initially diagnosed and treated by a podiatrist and then later, if necessary, being referred to a doctor for surgical treatment. The exchange of experiences and information on patients treated by interdisciplinary teams allows doctors and podiatrists to find the best possible treatment and improve the quality of life of patients. The follow-up of patients after surgery can be performed later in podiatry offices. Owing to modern electronic communication, it is possible for a doctor to constantly monitor the patient’s condition without the need for direct visits to the doctor’s office.


Oriens ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 49 (3-4) ◽  
pp. 318-369
Author(s):  
Sajjad Rizvi

Abstract Despite the extensive work on the Safavid thinker Mullā Ṣadrā Šīrāzī (d. 1045/1636) nowadays in metropolitan academia, certain areas of philosophical and theological concern remain understudied, if studied at all – and even then, there is little attempt to consider his work in the light of philosophical analysis. We know of a venerable philosophical tradition of analysing the question of providence as a means for examining questions of creation (ex nihilo or otherwise), the problem of evil, determinism and free will, and the larger question of theodicy (and whether this world that we inhabit is indeed the ‘best of all possible worlds’). I propose to examine these questions through an analysis of a section of the theology in al-Asfār al-arbaʿa (The Four Journeys) of Mullā Ṣadrā (mawqif VIII of safar III) and juxtapose it with passages from his other works, all the while contextualising it within the longer Neoplatonic tradition of providence and evil. The section of the Asfār plays a pivotal role in outlining a wider theory of divine providence: following the analysis of the Avicennian proof for the existence of God as the Necessary Being and her attributes, and before the culmination on the emanative scheme of creation (or the incipience of the cosmos – ḥudūṯ al-ʿālam), Mullā Ṣadrā discusses the question of divine providence where one can clearly discern the influence of previous thinkers on him, namely Avicenna (d. 428/1037, al-Šifāʾ and Risālat al-ʿišq) al-Ġazālī (d. 505/ 1111, Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn), and Ibn ʿArabī (d. 638/1240, al-Futūḥāt al-makkīya). The section can be divided into four discussions: defining providence as well as the nature of good and evil, accounting for the ‘presence’ of evil in the cosmos, the ‘best of all possible worlds’, and erotic motion of the cosmos as well as the erotic attraction of humans for one another and back to their Origin. What emerges, however, is an account of providence that is subservient to Mullā Ṣadrā’s wider ontological commitment to the primary reality of being, its modulation and essential motion – the tripartite doctrines of aṣālat al-wuǧūd, taškīk al-wuǧūd and al-ḥaraka al-ǧawharīya – and fits within his overall approach to the procession of the cosmos from the One as a divine theophany and its reversion back to the One through theosis. Thus, an analysis of providence and evil demonstrates that underlying significance of Mullā Ṣadrā’s metaphysical commitments to a modulated monism.


2021 ◽  
pp. 1-3
Author(s):  
Tyron Goldschmidt
Keyword(s):  

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 ◽  
pp. 100-125
Author(s):  
Andrew Dennis Bassford

It has been argued recently that classical theism and Lewisian modal realism are incompatible theses. The most substantial argument to this effect takes the form of a trilemma. It argues that no sense can be made of God’s being a necessary being in the modal realistic picture, on pain of, among other things, modal collapse. The question of this essay is: Is that so? My goal here is to detail the reasons that have been offered in support of this contention and then defend the coherence of theistic modal realism from the trilemma. I call my reply to the argument an “Anselmian-Thomistic” defense, since it appeals to resources from classical medieval philosophy, especially from Anselm and Aquinas.


2021 ◽  
Vol 27 (2) ◽  
pp. 217-218
Author(s):  
Bruno Jacinto

AbstractNecessitism, Contingentism, and Theory Equivalence is a dissertation on issues in higher-order modal metaphysics. Consider a modal higher-order language with identity in which the universal quantifier is interpreted as expressing (unrestricted) universal quantification and the necessity operator is interpreted as expressing metaphysical necessity. The main question addressed in the dissertation concerns the correct theory formulated in this language. A different question that also takes centre stage in the dissertation is what it takes for theories to be equivalent.The whole dissertation consists of an extended argument in defence of the (joint) truth of two seemingly inconsistent higher-order modal theories, specifically: 1.Plantingan Moderate Contingentism, a theory based on Plantinga’s [1] modal metaphysics that is committed to, among other things, the contingent being of some individuals and the necessary being of all possible higher-order entities;2.Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism, a theory advocated by Williamson [3] which is committed to, among other things, the necessary being of every possible individual as well as of every possible higher-order entity.Part of the case for these theories’ joint truth relies on defences of the following metaphysical theses: (i) Thorough Serious Actualism, the thesis that no things could have been related while being nothing, and (ii) Higher-Order Necessitism, the thesis that necessarily, every higher-order entity is necessarily something. It is shown that Thorough Serious Actualism and Higher-Order Necessitism are both implicit commitments of very weak logical theories. The defence of Higher-Order Necessitism constitutes a powerful challenge to Stalnaker’s [2] Thorough Contingentism, a theory committed to, among other things, the view that there could have been some individuals as well as some entities of any higher-order that could have been nothing.In the dissertation it is argued that Plantingan Moderate Contingentism and Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism are in fact equivalent, even if they appear to be jointly inconsistent. The case for this claim relies on the Synonymy account, a novel account of theory equivalence developed and defended in the dissertation. According to this account, theories are equivalent just in case they have the same commitments and conception of logical space.By way of defending the Synonymy account’s adequacy, the account is applied to the debate between noneists, proponents of the view that some things do not exist, and Quineans, proponents of the view that to exist just is to be some thing. The Synonymy account is shown to afford a more nuanced and better understanding of that debate by revealing that what noneists and Quineans are really disagreeing about is what expressive resources are available to appropriately describe the world.By coupling a metatheoretical result with tools from the philosophy of language, it is argued that Plantingan Moderate Contingentism and Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism are synonymous theories, and so, by the lights of the Synonymy account, equivalent. Given the defence of their extant commitments made in the dissertation, it is concluded that Plantingan Moderate Contingentism and Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism are both correct. A corollary of this result is that the dispute between Plantingans and Williamsonians is, in an important sense, merely verbal. For if two theories are equivalent, then they “require the same of the world for their truth.”Thus, the results of the dissertation reveal that if one speaks as a Plantingan while advocating Plantingan Moderate Contingentism, or as a Williamsonian while advocating Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism, then one will not go wrong. Notwithstanding, one will still go wrong if one speaks as a Plantingan while advocating Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism, or as a Williamsonian while advocating Plantingan Moderate Contingentism.On the basis of a conception of the individual constants and predicates of second-order modal languages as strongly Millian, i.e., as having actually existing entities as their semantic values, in the appendix are presented second-order modal logics consistent with Stalnaker’s Thorough Contingentism. Furthermore, it is shown there that these logics are strong enough for applications of higher-order modal logic in mathematics, a result that constitutes a reply to an argument to the contrary by Williamson [3]. Finally, these logics are proven to be complete relative to particular “thoroughly contingentist” classes of models.


2021 ◽  
pp. 325-334
Author(s):  
Ian Proops

This chapter examines the thesis and antithesis of the fourth antinomy—along with their supporting arguments. It argues that Kant seeks to resolve this antinomy by a strategy paralleling the one he employs in the third Antinomy: namely, attempting to show that if Transcendental Idealism is true, the thesis and antithesis can be so understood that the truth of neither one excludes the truth of the other. The resolution further mirrors that of the third antinomy insofar as it does not purport to show on theoretical grounds that the concept of a necessary being is internally consistent. The chapter closes by examining the relevance to the fourth antinomy of Kant’s discussion of the example of De Mairan and the moon. This is a case in which one and the same body of evidence strikes each of two rival theorists as exclusively supporting their own position, thus inducing an antinomial dispute.


2021 ◽  
Vol 6 (4) ◽  
pp. 247-282
Author(s):  
Arlyn Culwick

A form of special divine action often considered central to the everyday experience of Christianity is that of a personal interaction with God. For example, in The Second Person Perspective in Aquinas’s Ethics, Andrew Pinsent characterises this interaction in terms of mutually empathic relations that serve to “infuse” virtues and other attributes into a person. Such interaction requires that causal relations exist between a necessary being and the contingent universe. This paper addresses a central problem of special divine action: that the empirically identifiable causes of physical events are modally ill-suited for (and epistemically distinct from) the action of an eternal, non-composite, necessary being. Accounts of what brings about physical events are standardly empirical accounts, grounded upon experience of the world.


2020 ◽  
pp. 15-54
Author(s):  
Vince R. Vitale

This chapter analyzes the concepts of harm and benefit. There is a tendency in the literature on the metaphysics of harm to assume symmetric accounts of harm and benefit. But there are deep asymmetries between harm and benefit, recommending asymmetric metaphysical accounts. For harm and benefit, in turn, this chapter considers whether counterfactual comparative, temporal comparative, and non-comparative conditions are necessary or sufficient. For harm, the judgement reached is that a non-comparative condition—whereby harm is a matter of being in a bad state even if not in a worse state—is necessary and sufficient. It is further discussed why “non-comparative” is a misleading term for this account, and a more precise terminology of trans-comparative account is recommended. For benefit, the judgement reached is that temporal comparative and counterfactual comparative conditions are individually sufficient and disjunctively necessary; being benefited is a matter of being made temporally or counterfactually better-off. It is shown that this asymmetric metaphysical accounts allow for an important ethical distinction between harm-averting and non-harm-averting benefits. Next this distinction and an analogy between the ethics of human horror-inducement and the ethics of divine creation and sustenance is used to develop an ethical framework for theodicy. A taxonomy is constructed by sketching four cases of human action where horrors are either caused, permitted, or risked, either for pure benefit (i.e. a benefit that does not avert a still greater harm) or for harm avoidance.


Fenomena ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 214-247
Author(s):  
Mukhtar Mukhtar

This study aims to describe the implementation of mastery learning (complete learning) in Islamic Religious Education learning (both planning, implementation, evaluation, learning outcomes and follow-up) in SMA Negeri 2 Bogor; also to provide a clear explanation of the implications of mastery learning on students' achievement of Competency Standards (SK) in Islamic Education learning. This research is a qualitative field research. The approach used is descriptive qualitative and data collection uses the method of observation, interviews, documentation and triangulation. The data analysis used was descriptive analytical and interpretive. The results show that SMA Negeri 2 Bogor has implemented the mastery learning strategy as an effort to achieve SK in learning (PAI), especially - more intensively - since the implementation of the CBC in 2004 and KTSP in 2006, but the implementation has not been maximal. and needs further improvement. Implementatively, the mastery learning strategy pays close attention to individual differences, marked by the existence of follow-up programs in the form of remedial, enrichment and acceleration programs, which of course become necessary being. so that students achieve competency completely. The implication is that the achievement of SK depends on the achievement of Basic Competence (KD), and the achievement of KD is very dependent on the achievement of indicators, and vice versa. The completeness is based on the Minimum Completeness Criteria (KKM) that have been determined in Islamic Education learning, so that students have competence and performance that can be measured (measurable) and can be observed (observable) as an indicator of successful learning completely.


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