KEEPING IN TOUCH WITH OUR HIDDEN SIDE

Previous studies have shown that the sensory modality used to identify the position of proprioceptive targets hidden from sight, but frequently viewed, influences the type of the body representation employed for reaching them with the finger. The question then arises as to whether this observation also applies to proprioceptive targets which are hidden from sight, and rarely, if ever, viewed. We used an established technique for pinpointing the type of body representation used for the spatial encoding of targets which consisted of assessing the effect of peripheral gaze fixation on the pointing accuracy. More precisely, an exteroceptive, visually dependent, body representation is thought to be used if gaze deviation induces a deviation of the pointing movement. Three light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were positioned at the participants' eye level at -25 deg, 0 deg and +25 deg with respect to the cyclopean eye. Without moving the head, the participant fixated the lit LED before the experimenter indicated one of the three target head positions: topmost point of the head (vertex) and two other points located at the front and back of the head. These targets were either verbal-cued or tactile-cued. The goal of the subjects (n=27) was to reach the target with their index finger. We analysed the accuracy of the movements directed to the topmost point of the head, which is a well-defined, yet out of view anatomical point. Based on the possibility of the brain to create visual representations of the body areas that remain out of view, we hypothesized that the position of the vertex is encoded using an exteroceptive body representation, both when verbally or tactile-cued. Results revealed that the pointing errors were biased in the opposite direction of gaze fixation for both verbal-cued and tactile-cued targets, suggesting the use of a vision-dependent exteroceptive body representation. The enhancement of the visual body representations by sensorimotor processes was suggested by the greater pointing accuracy when the vertex was identified by tactile stimulation compared to verbal instruction. Moreover, we found in a control condition that participants were more accurate in indicating the position of their own vertex than the vertex of other people. This result supports the idea that sensorimotor experiences increase the spatial resolution of the exteroceptive body representation. Together, our results suggest that the position of rarely viewed body parts are spatially encoded by an exteroceptive body representation and that non-visual sensorimotor processes are involved in the constructing of this representation.

Cognitive and affective Theory of Mind double dissociation after parietal and temporal lobe tumors

Extensive neuroimaging literature suggests that understanding others' thoughts and emotions engages a wide network encompassing parietal, temporal and medial frontal brain areas. However, the causal role played by these regions in social inferential abilities is still unclear. Moreover very little is known about ToM deficits in brain tumours and whether potential anatomical substrates are comparable to those identified in fMRI literature. This study evaluated the performance of 105 tumour patients, before and immediately after brain surgery, on a cartoon-based non-verbal task evaluating Cognitive (Intention Attribution) and Affective (Emotion Attribution) ToM, as well as a non-social control condition (Causal Inference). Across multiple analyses, we found converging evidence of a double dissociation between patients with right superior parietal damage, selectively impaired in Intention Attribution, and those with right antero-medial temporal lesion, exhibiting deficits only in Emotion attribution. Instead, patients with damage to the frontal cortex were impaired in all kinds of inferential processes, including those from the non-social control conditions. Overall, our data provides novel reliable causal evidence of segregation between different aspects of the ToM network from both the cognitive and also the anatomical point of view.

ANATOMICAL ASPECTS OF THE STEM AND LEAF OF MENTHA x PIPERITA L. (LAMIACEAE)

Mentha x piperita (Lamiaceae) has been known since ancient times due to its aromatic and therapeutic properties. The differences in essential oil composition among the members of the genus Mentha offer a diversity of strains with high contents of menthone, menthol, carvone, linalool, or other valued terpenoid components synthesized by the mevalonic acid pathway. The species was analyzed anatomically. As biologic material, stems and leaves have been sampled from crops, during the vegetation period, before blooming. From an anatomical point of view, transverse sections were made through stems and leaves. At the level of the epidermis, both in the stem and in the leaf, the secretory and the tector trichomes were highlighted. The foliar limb is hypostomatic, with stomata in the inferior epidermis, the stomata being of the diacitic type. The mesophilus of the foliar is bifacial, having palisadic tissue with a single layer of cells, located under the superior epidermis and lacunar tissue, located under the inferior epidermis.

Do We Still Believe There Is a G-spot?

In the field of female sexuality, the existence of the so-called “G-spot” represents a topic still anchored to anecdotes and opinions and explained using non-scientific points, as well as being overused for commercial and mediatic purposes. Purpose of Review The scope of this review is to give an update on the current state of information regarding the G-spot and suggesting potential future directions in the research field of this interesting, albeit controversial, aspect of human sexual physiology. Recent Findings From evolutionary, anatomical, and functional points of view, new evidence has rebutted the original conceptualization of the G-spot, abandoning the idea of a specific anatomical point able to produce exceptional orgasmic experiences through the stimulation of the anterior vaginal wall, the site where the G-spot is assumed to be. From a psychological perspective, only few findings to date are able to describe the psychological, behavioral, and social correlates of the pleasure experience by G-spot-induced or, better, vaginally induced orgasm (VAO). Summary Recent literature suggests the existence of a G-spot but specifies that, since it is not a spot, neither anatomically nor functionally, it cannot be called G, nor spot, anymore. It is indeed a functional, dynamic, and hormone-dependent area (called clitorourethrovaginal, CUV, complex), extremely individual in its development and action due to the combined influence of biological and psychological aspects, which may trigger VAO and in some particular cases also female ejaculation (FE).

Cartilage structure increases swimming efficiency of underwater robots

Underwater robots are useful for exploring valuable resources and marine life. Traditional underwater robots use screw propellers, which may be harmful to marine life. In contrast, robots that incorporate the swimming principles, morphologies, and softness of aquatic animals are expected to be more adaptable to the surrounding environment. Rajiform is one of the swimming forms observed in nature, which swims by generating the traveling waves on flat large pectoral fins. From an anatomical point of view, Rajiform fins consist of cartilage structures encapsulated in soft tissue, thereby realizing anisotropic stiffness. We hypothesized that such anisotropy is responsible for the generation of traveling waves that enable a highly efficient swimming. We validate our hypothesis through the development of a stingray robot made of silicone-based cartilages and soft tissue. For comparison, we fabricate a robot without cartilages, as well as the one combining soft tissue and cartilage materials. The fabricated robots are tested to clarify their stiffness and swimming performance. The results show that inclusion of cartilage structure in the robot fins increases the swimming efficiency. It is suggested that arrangement and distribution of soft and hard areas inside the body structure is a key factor to realize high-performance soft underwater robots.

Anatomical, Histological and Histochemical Features of the Guinea Pig (Cavia porcellus) Caecum

In this study, the caecum of five guinea pigs was anatomically, histologically, and histochemically analyzed. From an anatomical point of view, it has been proved that the caecum in guinea pigs occupies the caudal segment of the abdominal cavity and consists of three parts: the ampullary portion, the body of the caecum, and the apex of the caecum, without a caecal appendix. In our histological analysis, we observed that the caecum has a simple structure, and the cecal mucosal glands are rare and contain, in addition to enterocytes, a small number of goblet cells, which are better represented in the deep part of the glands. Histochemically it has been observed that goblet cells are PAS and Alcian blue positive, which shows that they secrete both neutral and acidic mucins. The intensity of these two histochemical reactions is similar to that of goblet cells from other intestinal segments, proving that they are typical goblet cells. The large volume of the caecum suggests that this is an important section for the digestion process, although the relatively simple structure of the caecal mucosa suggests that the digestion here is not preponderant, but only complements the intestinal one.

THE CHOICE OF THE OPTIMAL LEVEL OF INTERSECTION OF THE PANCREAS TAKING INTO ACCOUNT VARIANTS OF THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ARTERIAL VESSELS AND PANCREATIC DUCT

Objective. To determine the optimal level of intersection of the pancreas based on the features of the topography of the arterial vessels and the pancreatic duct of the isthmus and the body of the pancreas. Methods. 44 complexes of the upper floor of the abdominal cavity were studied. An injection mass with the subsequent fixation complexes in a formalin solution was introduced into the arterial vessels. The pancreatic tissue was crossed over the superior mesenteric vein along vertical lines drawn on one, two, three, four, and five cm to the left of the superior mesenteric vein. Depending on the diameter, the arteries were divided into the following types: 1 type (diameter - 0.5 - 1.0 mm); 2 type (diameter - 1.1 - 1.5 mm); 3 type (diameter more than 1.6 mm). The sections were used to assess the topography of the main tubular structures, the number and diameter of arterial vessels greater than 0.5 mm, the number of vessels of a certain type and the mean vessel diameter of this type. Results. On the cross - section above the superior mesenteric vein, as well as on the section made 1 cm to the left of it, vessels of type 1 (0.5-1.0 mm) prevailed. At the same time, two more pronounced arterial vessels were noted. These arteries were located, as a rule, extra-organically and had a relatively constant topography. The location of the pancreatic duct corresponded to the central part of the section. On transverse sections of the pancreas made along lines located from 2 cm to 5 cm to the left of the superior mesenteric vein; up to 5 arterial vessels were recorded.The location of the arterial vessels was inconsistent and did not have limited topographic zones. On sections from 2 to 5 cm to the left of the superior mesenteric vein, damage to the dorsal pancreatic artery was noted, and on sections 4 and 5 cm to the left of the superior mesenteric vein, a peripheral location of the pancreatic duct was found. Conclusion. The optimal level of intersection of the pancreas is the area above the superior mesenteric vein and 1 cm left of the superior mesenteric vein. What this paper adds It was revealed that the region of the pancreas from the superior mesenteric vein to 1 cm left of the superior mesenteric vein is considered to be the most optimal for transection of the pancreatic tissue from the anatomical point of view. Here, as a rule, two arterial vessels meet. It was found that the topography of these arteries is relatively constant, which makes it possible to suture them selectively.

The Forward Model: A Unifying Theory for the Role of the Cerebellum in Motor Control and Sense of Agency

For more than two decades, there has been converging evidence for an essential role of the cerebellum in non-motor functions. The cerebellum is not only important in learning and sensorimotor processes, some growing evidences show its implication in conditional learning and reward, which allows building our expectations about behavioral outcomes. More recent work has demonstrated that the cerebellum is also required for the sense of agency, a cognitive process that allows recognizing an action as our own, suggesting that the cerebellum might serve as an interface between sensorimotor function and cognition. A unifying model that would explain the role of the cerebellum across these processes has not been fully established. Nonetheless, an important heritage was given by the field of motor control: the forward model theory. This theory stipulates that movements are controlled based on the constant interactions between our organism and its environment through feedforward and feedback loops. Feedforward loops predict what is going to happen, while feedback loops confront the prediction with what happened so that we can react accordingly. From an anatomical point of view, the cerebellum is at an ideal location at the interface between the motor and sensory systems, as it is connected to cerebral, striatal, and spinal entities via parallel loops, so that it can link sensory and motor systems with cognitive processes. Recent findings showing that the cerebellum participates in building the sense of agency as a predictive and comparator system will be reviewed together with past work on motor control within the context of the forward model theory.

Modification Of Reading Man Flap For Reconstruction Of Infraorbital Defects: a Case Report

Background: Reconstruction of the defect in the infraorbital area after wide excision can lead to problems such as distortion of the anatomical point and ectropion. A “reading man” flap is a recent local flap procedure, which has been used to treat this problem.Case Presentation: We report a case of keratotic basal cell carcinoma in the right infraorbital area. After wide excision, a defect of 40x35 mm was found, which was very close to the lid margin and close to the bottom of the eyebrow, which was reconstructed by reading man flap with slight modifications. Our modification is to extend the leg flap laterally, to avoid the lower part of the brow. So that the eyebrows are still protected from the flap incision.Conclusion: Reading man flap as a circular defect closure option is a useful addition to the plastic surgeon's mastery of techniques for performing round periorbital defect reconstruction. Reading man flap can be designed flexibly. It is a good option for the closure of round or elliptical-shaped defects.