Cyprus and Sardinia at the Transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age: A Sacred Landscape Approach

In the framework of this contribution, and taking a macro-historic sacred landscapes approach, we established a comparative project analysing in parallel the development of sacred landscapes of two mega-islands, Cyprus and Sardinia, at the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age. In both Cyprus and Sardinia, the period between the 12th and 8th centuries BC seems to have been a time when re-negotiations of individual, societal, and political identities took place, and this is clearly reflected on the construction of the sacred landscapes of the two islands. We first present our ‘landscape/macro-historic approach’; we then define the chronological horizon and the socio-historical contexts under discussion for each island, exploring at the same time how the hierarchical arrangement of ritual sites appearing at this transitional phase seems to be related with articulated social order or linked with shifting relations of power and cultural influence. Finally, we proceed to a discussion addressing the following three questions: (1) what is the relation between individual insularities and the construction of sacred landscapes on these two mega-islands?; (2) how can a ‘landscape/macro-historic approach’ assist us in better formulating microscopic approaches on both islands at the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age?; and (3) is a comparative approach viable?

Traditional Institutions' Management of Sacred Forests in Tanzania: History, Narratives, and Evidence from Njombe Region, 1880s-2019

<p>Forest management entails interdependence between nature and society at different levels and systems. In Africa, one example of the interdependence of nature and society is ‘sacred forests,’ groves of trees with special religious importance to a people’s culture. In Tanzania, sacred forests are comparatively small in area, scattered over the entire country, and primarily managed by local village lineages, or kinship groups. In these communities, the close interaction in a small-scale society acts as a monitoring and sanctioning device. The patches of sacred forests have historically been managed as part of local tradition. Their management demonstrates Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), the linkages between biodiversity and cosmology, and the intersection between the social and the natural sciences. Scholars of traditional forestry in Tanzania have for decades compared sacred woodlands with the state- or private-owned forests. Comparing these different forest management systems cultivated a ‘relic stance’ in much of the scholarship regarding sacred groves. The predominant tone of sacred forest scholarship has been to describe sacred landscapes as static communal sites without exploring their associated constitutive dynamics. In such an interpretation, sacred forests have been regarded as remnants of the primordial past, a frozen view of these fragments of woodlands. Studying sacred groves without considering the institutions that uphold them is problematic, as it assumes traditional institutions have continued to be stagnant, interacting with sacred forests in the same way throughout time. This thesis studies traditional institutions’ management of sacred forests by the Bena people of Njombe, southwest Tanzania, 1880s–2019. The Bena are a largely unstudied group. The study uses a qualitative, mixed-method research approach, including interviews in Swahili and Bena, documentary evidence from the Tanzania National Archives, anthropological reports, participant observation, and online documentaries. In applying a mixed-method approach, the thesis bridges history, anthropology, ethnography, and ecology to study forest management as an ongoing process of interdependence between nature and society. Rather than exclusively looking at the sacred forests as geographic locations, this study underscores their socio-ecological aspect and asserts traditional institutions’ dynamics as a key in explaining their history in Njombe. Thus, the thesis not only foregrounds the existence of such patches of forests in Njombe but also unpacks the institutional, cultural politics to reveal the contestations and appropriations around the symbolic, cultural, economic, and ecological value of sacred sites among the Bena community. By using a knowledge-practice-belief complex systems lens, this thesis expands beyond simplistic narratives of inertness, to focus on historical, cultural, economic, and political dynamics that are internal and external to communities that have often helped sustain sacred groves’ traditions or contributed to their degradation. The thesis argues that the Bena sacred forests are embedded in a cultural matrix which is very different from the socio-cultural, economic, political, and ecological landscapes from which they evolved. While managing sacred forests was traditionally an integral part of cultural systems designed to sustain livelihoods and spiritual well-being of the community, the relationship between the land and culture has shifted dramatically within different historical periods, altering the steadiness of the sites. In pre-colonial Njombe, chiefs and elders controlled the use of natural resources, but the relationships of the inhabitants to the forests changed with shifting social and environmental conditions. During German and British colonial rule, differences in perception of the landscape defined the contest over sacred forests between the indigenous people and the foreigners. The materially driven world has increasingly necessitated redefinition of sacred landscapes in post-colonial Njombe. The meanings attributed to sacred forests, derived from traditional Bena cosmology and which drive current conservation policies, have changed, and adapted to new circumstances. The shift represents the flexibility and evolution of local institutions and ecological knowledge, which illustrates the power of fluid, dynamic local communities. The change also emphasises the divergent approach of current conservation programs, which view sacred forests as static and contained.</p>

Traditional Institutions' Management of Sacred Forests in Tanzania: History, Narratives, and Evidence from Njombe Region, 1880s-2019

<p>Forest management entails interdependence between nature and society at different levels and systems. In Africa, one example of the interdependence of nature and society is ‘sacred forests,’ groves of trees with special religious importance to a people’s culture. In Tanzania, sacred forests are comparatively small in area, scattered over the entire country, and primarily managed by local village lineages, or kinship groups. In these communities, the close interaction in a small-scale society acts as a monitoring and sanctioning device. The patches of sacred forests have historically been managed as part of local tradition. Their management demonstrates Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), the linkages between biodiversity and cosmology, and the intersection between the social and the natural sciences. Scholars of traditional forestry in Tanzania have for decades compared sacred woodlands with the state- or private-owned forests. Comparing these different forest management systems cultivated a ‘relic stance’ in much of the scholarship regarding sacred groves. The predominant tone of sacred forest scholarship has been to describe sacred landscapes as static communal sites without exploring their associated constitutive dynamics. In such an interpretation, sacred forests have been regarded as remnants of the primordial past, a frozen view of these fragments of woodlands. Studying sacred groves without considering the institutions that uphold them is problematic, as it assumes traditional institutions have continued to be stagnant, interacting with sacred forests in the same way throughout time. This thesis studies traditional institutions’ management of sacred forests by the Bena people of Njombe, southwest Tanzania, 1880s–2019. The Bena are a largely unstudied group. The study uses a qualitative, mixed-method research approach, including interviews in Swahili and Bena, documentary evidence from the Tanzania National Archives, anthropological reports, participant observation, and online documentaries. In applying a mixed-method approach, the thesis bridges history, anthropology, ethnography, and ecology to study forest management as an ongoing process of interdependence between nature and society. Rather than exclusively looking at the sacred forests as geographic locations, this study underscores their socio-ecological aspect and asserts traditional institutions’ dynamics as a key in explaining their history in Njombe. Thus, the thesis not only foregrounds the existence of such patches of forests in Njombe but also unpacks the institutional, cultural politics to reveal the contestations and appropriations around the symbolic, cultural, economic, and ecological value of sacred sites among the Bena community. By using a knowledge-practice-belief complex systems lens, this thesis expands beyond simplistic narratives of inertness, to focus on historical, cultural, economic, and political dynamics that are internal and external to communities that have often helped sustain sacred groves’ traditions or contributed to their degradation. The thesis argues that the Bena sacred forests are embedded in a cultural matrix which is very different from the socio-cultural, economic, political, and ecological landscapes from which they evolved. While managing sacred forests was traditionally an integral part of cultural systems designed to sustain livelihoods and spiritual well-being of the community, the relationship between the land and culture has shifted dramatically within different historical periods, altering the steadiness of the sites. In pre-colonial Njombe, chiefs and elders controlled the use of natural resources, but the relationships of the inhabitants to the forests changed with shifting social and environmental conditions. During German and British colonial rule, differences in perception of the landscape defined the contest over sacred forests between the indigenous people and the foreigners. The materially driven world has increasingly necessitated redefinition of sacred landscapes in post-colonial Njombe. The meanings attributed to sacred forests, derived from traditional Bena cosmology and which drive current conservation policies, have changed, and adapted to new circumstances. The shift represents the flexibility and evolution of local institutions and ecological knowledge, which illustrates the power of fluid, dynamic local communities. The change also emphasises the divergent approach of current conservation programs, which view sacred forests as static and contained.</p>

Progenitor: An exploration of indigenous values and waterway management through immersive digital landscapes

<p>Over the last One hundred years water quality of New Zealand harbours and waterways have diminished due to the unconcern of infrastructural development and poor public waterway and harbour awareness. By exploring the conventional methods traditionally involved with kaitiakitanga and how to digitally map and represent these values through virtual representation, simulation and management, the ultimate aim of this thesis is to establish a kaitiaki approach to restoring a maori holistic world view perspective and the mana tupuna of the indigenous peoples of Porirua. During the past decade, the Maori indigenous peoples of New Zealand have had land returned from the crown in light of the post treaty settlement. Due to the deforestation and ecocide of many Tribal lands across New Zealand, Tangata Whenua and Ahi Kaa have culturally detached with their lands, and the need to re-establish the Kaitiaki and mana within those areas is highly prioritized. The argument that unfolds now is ‘How to restore and revitalize sacred landscapes that have been exposed to the demise of natural resources and have lost significance value resulting in the disappearance of mana and whakapapa of many tribal lands?’ Through both a landscape architectural lens and an Indigenous lens the aim of this thesis is to research and employ new and alternative methods of resource management by incorporating new and upcoming design software in correlation to Maori Land holdings and collaboration with iwi. The collateral damage caused by commercial and industrial development has over the past decade has also sabotaged values of Kaitiaki due to the increase of hard surface infrastructure and polluted waterways. Current methods of mapping traditional landscapes are limited when it comes to the ability to encapsulate an environment with cultural values. This research investigates the potential of digital tools and iwi collaboration to enhance the experiential aspect of an environment through an immersive, interactive and open collaborative 3D environment. By leveraging the potential of photogrammetry to represent a 3D scene of certain areas, the potential to test and simulate current land management will be tested through a 3D model. Equipped with live feeds of data such as climate, tree species, this model’s purpose will be to emulate a cultural landscape and reconnect the loss of kaitiaki between Iwi and their Rohe. This tool will be designed to enable user interaction and commentary to simulate realistic scenes of their day to day scenery in order to become more aware of the impacts of kaitiaki and whakapapa. Both Iwi and council have a long-term interest in the design of good landscapes that reflect culturally while enabling methods of traditional kaupapa and kaitiakitanga. My goal is to aid this design process through landscape architecture.</p>

Progenitor: An exploration of indigenous values and waterway management through immersive digital landscapes

<p>Over the last One hundred years water quality of New Zealand harbours and waterways have diminished due to the unconcern of infrastructural development and poor public waterway and harbour awareness. By exploring the conventional methods traditionally involved with kaitiakitanga and how to digitally map and represent these values through virtual representation, simulation and management, the ultimate aim of this thesis is to establish a kaitiaki approach to restoring a maori holistic world view perspective and the mana tupuna of the indigenous peoples of Porirua. During the past decade, the Maori indigenous peoples of New Zealand have had land returned from the crown in light of the post treaty settlement. Due to the deforestation and ecocide of many Tribal lands across New Zealand, Tangata Whenua and Ahi Kaa have culturally detached with their lands, and the need to re-establish the Kaitiaki and mana within those areas is highly prioritized. The argument that unfolds now is ‘How to restore and revitalize sacred landscapes that have been exposed to the demise of natural resources and have lost significance value resulting in the disappearance of mana and whakapapa of many tribal lands?’ Through both a landscape architectural lens and an Indigenous lens the aim of this thesis is to research and employ new and alternative methods of resource management by incorporating new and upcoming design software in correlation to Maori Land holdings and collaboration with iwi. The collateral damage caused by commercial and industrial development has over the past decade has also sabotaged values of Kaitiaki due to the increase of hard surface infrastructure and polluted waterways. Current methods of mapping traditional landscapes are limited when it comes to the ability to encapsulate an environment with cultural values. This research investigates the potential of digital tools and iwi collaboration to enhance the experiential aspect of an environment through an immersive, interactive and open collaborative 3D environment. By leveraging the potential of photogrammetry to represent a 3D scene of certain areas, the potential to test and simulate current land management will be tested through a 3D model. Equipped with live feeds of data such as climate, tree species, this model’s purpose will be to emulate a cultural landscape and reconnect the loss of kaitiaki between Iwi and their Rohe. This tool will be designed to enable user interaction and commentary to simulate realistic scenes of their day to day scenery in order to become more aware of the impacts of kaitiaki and whakapapa. Both Iwi and council have a long-term interest in the design of good landscapes that reflect culturally while enabling methods of traditional kaupapa and kaitiakitanga. My goal is to aid this design process through landscape architecture.</p>

Beyond East and West – Geocommunicating Historical Sacred Landscapes

The Project “Beyond East and West: Geocommunicating the Sacred Landscapes of “Duklja” and “Raška” through Space and Time (11th–14th Cent.)” attempts to recreate and communicate the sacred landscape during a time of transition and transformation. The project has an interdisciplinary approach and incorporates multiple media, like maps, images, and 3D models. The study area of the project is situated at the junction between the Dinaric mountain range and the coastal region of the Adriatic Sea. Historically, the region was shaped by the power struggle between Byzantium, the First Bulgarian Empire, and the Serbian Realm. Ecclesiastically, it was a zone of interaction as well as encounter between Rome and Constantinople. The aim of the project is to discover and visualise the spatial and temporal aspects of these encounters and transformation processes.To communicate the historical sacred landscape, a map-centred online application is used as a hub. To explore the relations between places, events, actors and artifacts, the users can follow the links between the entities. Content created during this project is more than points, lines or polygons which can be displayed on a map. Many objects are complemented with images, and for selected churches 3D models using aerial images captured by UAVs will be created. “Story Maps” are created for selected core research topics to provide an easily accessible starting point for users. The broader aim beyond the current research project is to provide a flexible framework, which can serve as a platform for similar research projects in historical geography and digital humanities.

The Siberian Village of Okunevo as a Place of Power and its Sacred Landscape

The paper deals with contemporary places of power and New Age sacred landscapes in Russia.* It focuses on the Siberian village of Okunevo, its sacred sites, and their worshippers. Formation of this place of power was a result of the activity of individuals (both academics and adherents of new religious movements), combined with the specific interpretation of archaeological sites and the natural landscape of the area. The landscape around the village of Okunevo affects the interaction of people with the sacred loci and the ways the signs, symbols and narratives about them are created.

Ancient Wisdom, Stigmatised Knowledge, and Sacred Landscapes: Ontologies and Epistemologies of New Age Culture in Post-Soviet Russia

The four articles in this section deal with anthropological study of New Age beliefs and practices in post-Soviet Russia. They are in part the result of a joint German–Russian research project titled New Religious Cultures in Late Soviet and Post-Soviet Russia: Ideology, Social Networks, Discourses, supported by the German Research Foundation and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research. In this introductory paper I will briefly discuss the principal outcomes of this research as well as general analytical issues related to the field of New Age studies both in global and local (post-Soviet) contexts.

Ecclesiastical Economies: The Integration of Sacred and Maritime Topographies of Late Antique Cyprus

This article focusses on the relationship of the church with productive landscapes and coastal topographies within numerous Cypriot contexts of the 4th–8th centuries. Through synthesising the archaeological research and architectural remains of these aspects and categories, the coastal settlements of the island are recontextualised in terms of their mercantile, religious, and cultural networks, on inter- and intraregional scales. The advantages of researching late antique insular societies on local, individual scales and within economic contexts are therefore highlighted. These integrative approaches can illuminate the constructions of religious identity across many coastal contexts, particularly in larger islands with micro-regions and trans-Mediterranean connectivity, like Cyprus. By considering the importance of the administrative and economic roles of the late antique church within these maritime topographies, future archaeological research can integrate both the monumentality and pragmatic aspects of sacred landscapes.

A Systematic Investigation of Sacred Space in the Kama-Vyatka Region: Udmurt Materials

This article summarises the results of long-term studies of cult places and reconstructions of sacred space at the turn of the 20th century. The studies were carried out by the Udmurt Institute of History Language and Literature, Urals Department of the Russian Academy of Science. The article starts by reflecting on the meaning of the word ‘sacred’ in Russian and Udmurt. It then explains the main approaches and research methods used when looking at spaces that have become sacred as a result of a particular activity, for example through symbolical domestication and transformation of the environment; or because of the natural, social, cultural and spiritual milieu; or as a particular creative transformation of the hierotopy, including hierophany as the presence of a divine (or mystical) component. In reconstructing the traditional sacred space of the Udmurt, we used systematic, and structural/semiotic methods. The first sees sacred space as a complicated natural, historical and cultural, religious and mythological set, while the second reveals the semantics of these cultural places, objects and rituals. We pay particular attention to the study of structure, of the main indicators and the semantics of the Udmurt traditional space at the turn of the 20th century. We have followed the means of organising sacred landscapes, which assumed the existence of networks of shrines and cult objects, a systematic organisation of ceremonies and rituals at each of them, and the holding of family and calendar rituals. We have revealed circles (levels) of sacredness (family, patronymic, conditional clan, village, regional, tribal and territorial), showing how the mythological opposition between sacred and profane is relative within each local area, existing implicitly within the limits of a wider area of sacredness. We have briefly characterised how extensive study has been of the different types of religious landscape, and the present state of the art.