Medieval Activity at Beech Tree Close, Oakley, Hampshire

An archaeological excavation in advance of a housing development revealed a range of deposits dating from the 11th to 13th centuries. The features do not conform to what would be expected either for the nucleus of an isolated farmstead or as part of a medieval village, but they perhaps indicate an area of activity adjacent to a more densely settled area. The deposits were relatively rich in charred plant remains indicating arable production. The parish church, usually considered to be located close to a village centre, lies several hundred metres to the west and if the deposits here do not relate to an independent farmstead, perhaps they pre-date the formation of the nucleated village. One feature is potentially a Saxon SFB (sunken-featured building). Some early Saxon and Roman pottery sherds were also recovered.

Proximate, Ultimate and Calorific Analysis of European Beech Tree (Fagus sylvatica) Components for Fuel

Aims: The three different above ground biomass components (branch, crown, bark) of European Beech (Fagus sylvatica) were evaluated, regarding energy and combustion properties. Study Design: The proximate, ultimate and calorific analysis conducted on components of European Beech tree from three different age stands (10-, 20-, 30 years old). For each group of sample, separate experiments were carried out under similar conditions and experimental findings presented comparatively. The results obtained may be suggested for the selection of the best parts and age group for the improvement of fuel properties of selected tree and could provide useful evaluation of the test methods employed. Methodology: The three different above ground biomass components (branch, crown, bark) of European Beech (Fagus sylvatica) were selected for the investigation. For comparatively determining the combustion behavior and energy properties of the of European Beech tree components, the chips were prepared. These chips were dried (air dried, 12%) in laboratory conditions at 20 °C and 50% relative humidity before being subjected to evaluations. Typically, the combustion is preceded by evaporation of the moisture, distillation and burning of the volatiles before the fixed carbon burns. However, fixed carbon is the solid combustible residue that remains after a wood or bark are heated and the volatile matter is expelled. It is determined by subtracting the percentages of moisture, volatile matter, and ash from the sample. The combustion properties of a given substrate can be found by ultimate and proximate analysis. For determining volatile and ash contents, a TGA instrument (Leco TGA701 Thermogravimetric Analyzer) was utulized according to the ASTM D 5142 protocol. The moisture content determined at 105 °C, ash at 750 °C, volatiles at 950 °C in this experimental process. The heat values were determined by a calorimetry bomb instrument (Leco AC–500). At the end of the process, the energy levels of samples were found in calorific value (Kcal/Kg). The sulfur and carbon content were determined by using a carbon/sulfur analyzer instrument (Leco SC-144) and was determined at 1350 ºC at 3.0 min durations. Experimental Findings: It has found that selected variables (European Beech components and age groups) have influenced combustion and calorific properties in some level. However, bark was found to be show the lowest fixed carbon ratio of 13.7% in 10 years old samples. The highest volatile matter content of 84.6% was obtained with a 30 years old branch wood sample. Moreover, the highest level of ash content (3.7-9.9%) was found to be with bark samples in all three age groups, regardless of conditions. The measured calorific values looks like very similar in crown wood (4207.8 kcal/kg to 4263.8 kcal/kg) and branch wood samples (4137.8 kcal/kg to 4563.5 kcal/kg) while considerably lower for bark (3776.6 kcal/kg to 4200.7 kcal/kg). It is also important to note that European Beech tree have only showed trace amount of sulfur element (0.03-0.13%) in regardless of maturity and parts of tree.

The entomology of the veteran beech tree (Fagus sylvatica L.) at Kemerton Court, Worcestershire, England

The entomofauna of a veteran beech tree Fagus sylvatica L. in Kemerton civil parish (CP) in Watsonian East Gloucestershire VC33 was studied at widely spaced intervals for 22 years prior to its collapse during 2018. The richness of the entomofauna which demonstrates links with regional Urwald is remarkable given the position of the tree within the curtilage of a settlement and as a support system for Urwaldtier it was probably the best-endowed beech tree in the region. Elements of this fauna have clear affinities both with those of the Bredon Hill escarpment and with the primary river valleys. Key species are discussed and the importance of veteran ash as an agent of biotic continuity is confirmed.

Beech tree masting explains the inter-annual variation in the fall and spring peaks of Ixodes ricinus ticks with different time lags

Background: The tick Ixodes ricinus is an important vector of tick-borne diseases including Lyme borreliosis. In continental Europe, the nymphal stage of I. ricinus often has a bimodal phenology with a large spring/early summer peak and a smaller fall peak. While there is consensus about the origin of the spring nymphal peak, there are two alternative hypotheses for the fall nymphal peak, direct development versus delayed diapause. These two hypotheses make different predictions about the time lags of the correlations between the spring peak, the fall peak, and seed production (masting) by deciduous trees. Methods: To determine which hypothesis is most important for explaining the fall peak, we used data from a long-term surveillance study (15 years) on the density of I. ricinus nymphal ticks at 4 different elevation sites in an area of Switzerland that is endemic for Lyme borreliosis, and long-term data on the mast of the European beech tree from the literature. Results: I. ricinus nymphs had a bimodal phenology at the three lower elevation sites, but a unimodal phenology at the top elevation site. At the lower elevation sites, the density of nymphs (DON) in the fall was strongly correlated with the DON in the spring of the following year. The inter-annual variation in the densities of I. ricinus nymphs in the fall and spring were best explained by a 1-year versus a 2-year time lag with the beech tree masting index. Fall nymphs had higher fat content and are younger than spring nymphs. All of these observations are consistent with the direct development hypothesis for the fall peak of I. ricinus nymphs at our study site. Our study provides new insight into the complex bimodal phenology of this important disease vector. Conclusions: Public health officials in Europe should be aware that following a strong mast year, the DON will increase 1 year later in the fall and 2 years later in the spring and summer. Population ecology studies of I. ricinus should consider that the spring and fall peak in the same calendar year represent different generations of ticks.

Masting by beech trees predicts the risk of Lyme disease

Background The incidence of Lyme borreliosis and other tick-borne diseases is increasing in Europe and North America. There is currently much interest in identifying the ecological factors that determine the density of infected ticks as this variable determines the risk of Lyme borreliosis to vertebrate hosts, including humans. Lyme borreliosis is caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) and in western Europe, the hard tick Ixodes ricinus is the most important vector. Methods Over a 15-year period (2004–2018), we monitored the monthly abundance of I. ricinus ticks (nymphs and adults) and their B. burgdorferi s.l. infection status at four different elevations on a mountain in western Switzerland. We collected climate variables in the field and from nearby weather stations. We obtained data on beech tree seed production (masting) from the literature, as the abundance of Ixodes nymphs can increase dramatically 2 years after a masting event. We used generalized linear mixed effects models and AIC-based model selection to identify the ecological factors that influence inter-annual variation in the nymphal infection prevalence (NIP) and the density of infected nymphs (DIN). Results We found that the NIP decreased by 78% over the study period. Inter-annual variation in the NIP was explained by the mean precipitation in the present year, and the duration that the DNA extraction was stored in the freezer prior to pathogen detection. The DIN decreased over the study period at all four elevation sites, and the decrease was significant at the top elevation. Inter-annual variation in the DIN was best explained by elevation site, year, beech tree masting index 2 years prior and the mean relative humidity in the present year. This is the first study in Europe to demonstrate that seed production by deciduous trees influences the density of nymphs infected with B. burgdorferi s.l. and hence the risk of Lyme borreliosis. Conclusions Public health officials in Europe should be aware that masting by deciduous trees is an important predictor of the risk of Lyme borreliosis.

Baltu un albāņu valodas seno kontaktu liecinieki Lejaskurzemē: Grobiņas dižskābarži un citi

The article deals with the semantic motivation of names denoting beech-tree (Fagus sylvatica), basing on the material recorded in subdialects of European languages as answers to the questionnaire of the Atlas Linguarum Europae and presented in a geolinguistic map. In general, ten motivational groups of names have been established, most important of them being: 1) names based on IE. *bhāg-i̯o-, cf. Engl. beech, Gm. Buche, Sp. haya, Port. faia, It. faggio, Russ., Ukr., Pol., Cz., Bulg. buk, Lith. bùkas, Latv. skābardis / guoba etc.; 2) forms derived from Latin vespices ‘shrub’, cf. Friul.Lad. vespol(a); 3) forms derived from Latin pertica ‘long perch’, cf. Fr. epache; 4) forms derived from Latin cerrus ‘oak’, cf. Rum. terş; 5) names based on Frank. *haistr- ‘young tree or bush’, cf. Fr. hêtre; 6) Hung. bükkfa, a name composed by bükk of obscure origin and meaning and fa ‘tree’; 7) forms derived from IE. *ask ‘ash-tree’, cf. Gr. όζυά, Alb. ah. Having examined the attested forms regarding their origin and semantics, the author concludes that the names to denote a beech-tree or its cognates, elm or box-tree, are rich in variants in the Baltic languages, mostly due to the influence of Standard Latvian or Lithuanian. However, beech-trees growing near Grobiņa are witnesses of ancient contacts between the Baltic and Albanian languages. Some names to denote a beech-tree can be found in Lithuanian phraseology. They frequently appear among both Latvian and Lithuanian toponyms as well as anthroponyms.

Hilary Putnam’s Liberal Naturalism about Language Use, Reference, and Truth

Hilary Putnam observes that a typical competent English speaker who cannot tell an elm tree from a beech tree may nevertheless use the word “elm” to make assertions and ask questions about elm trees. Putnam also observes that scientists may be wrong about the phenomena they investigate, while still being able to use their words to identify and raise research questions about it. This prompts him to ask what “language use” means in these contexts. He proposes two closely related methods for answering this question. The first method is to investigate and clarify the uses of sentences and words in a given linguistic practice from the point of view of a participant in the practice. The second is to explain our applications of ‘is true’ and ‘refers’ to sentences and words whose uses are described in accord with the first method. In this paper I raise several problems for Putnam’s applications of these methods and sketch a different way of applying the methods that avoids the problems.