Conservation of endemic lizards in New Zealand cities

<p>Globally, biodiversity is in crisis. One contributing factor is the rapid urbanisation of the world’s population. Land cover change associated with urbanisation radically alters ecosystems, making them uninhabitable for many species. Additionally, people who live in cities often have reduced contact with nature and there are fears that a lack of nature experience may diminish concern for the environment and biodiversity among urbanites. For these reasons, people in cities are increasingly being encouraged and empowered to reduce environmental impacts and connect with nature through urban restoration and backyard conservation. Internationally, lizards are a common feature of urban biodiversity but in New Zealand, where many species are threatened, little is known about populations of endemic skinks and geckos in cities. In order to effectively manage urban lizard populations, greater knowledge is needed about where and how lizards are surviving in cities, and what potential exists for their restoration. I investigated species diversity and abundance of lizards in New Zealand cities, making comparisons with historical species distributions to inform urban restoration and investigating the potential role that participatory conservation might play in their protection. To collate current knowledge about past and present distributions of urban-dwelling lizards, I reviewed records for six New Zealand cities from published and unpublished literature and databases. Little research was identified from cities and the majority of lizard records were of one-off sightings, or surveys related to salvage or biosecurity operations. Comparing current species records with historical species distributions, it found that the diversity of lizards in all of the cities has declined dramatically since human colonisation. To begin to fill the identified knowledge gap and to provide baselines for future monitoring, I carried out skink surveys in four cities and trialled a citizen science project that collected public sighting records from residential backyards. Surveys undertaken in urban habitats captured four species of endemic skink: Oligosoma aeneum in Hamilton, O. polychroma, O. aeneum and O. ornatum in Wellington, O. polychroma in Nelson, and O. aff. polychroma Clade 5 in Dunedin. Site occupancy and number of captures were highly variable among the species and cities, with a very high proportion of sites occupied by skinks in Nelson and Wellington compared with Hamilton and Dunedin. Modelling showed O. polychroma catch per unit effort was positively related to rat tracking rates when grass cover was low but showed a negative relationship when grass cover was high. Higher proportions of urban land cover within 500 m were negatively associated with body condition. The public sightings website gathered more than 100 records from around the Wellington region over one summer, suggesting citizen science may be a cost-effective solution for building knowledge about lizards in residential gardens that are otherwise difficult to survey. While skink sightings were reported from all over the city, gecko sightings appeared in clusters. Compared with a random sample of street addresses, both skink and gecko sightings were more common closer to forest land cover, but only skink sightings were more common in backyards that were north facing. Finally, I administered a questionnaire survey to understand how socio- demographic characteristics relate to willingness to engage in three different pro-conservation activities that might benefit lizards: pest mammal trapping, biodiversity monitoring and pest mammal monitoring. Public willingness to engage in all three activities was positively related to respondents’ nature relatedness and nature dosage, while only the two monitoring activities were positively related to education. The relationship between willingness and nature relatedness was weaker for pest trapping than it was for the two monitoring activities, suggesting that willingness to trap may be determined by factors other than environmental concern. Native lizards are an important component of New Zealand’s urban biodiversity. Despite cities having lost significant proportions of their original lizard fauna, a wide variety of habitats in cities still support numerous species. Some of these species seem well adapted to cope with the challenges of urban living, while further research is required to understand whether populations of other species are stable or in decline. To ensure the persistence of lizards in cities, further surveys using a variety of methods should be undertaken to assess lizard diversity and abundance in urban habitats and understand population trends of rare and sparsely distributed species. Public sightings may provide a useful starting point for assessing distribution patterns and allowing the targeting of surveys. In the future, through urban restoration, cities may offer opportunities to conserve a larger proportion of endemic species by reintroducing species that have become regionally extinct.</p>

Conservation of endemic lizards in New Zealand cities

<p>Globally, biodiversity is in crisis. One contributing factor is the rapid urbanisation of the world’s population. Land cover change associated with urbanisation radically alters ecosystems, making them uninhabitable for many species. Additionally, people who live in cities often have reduced contact with nature and there are fears that a lack of nature experience may diminish concern for the environment and biodiversity among urbanites. For these reasons, people in cities are increasingly being encouraged and empowered to reduce environmental impacts and connect with nature through urban restoration and backyard conservation. Internationally, lizards are a common feature of urban biodiversity but in New Zealand, where many species are threatened, little is known about populations of endemic skinks and geckos in cities. In order to effectively manage urban lizard populations, greater knowledge is needed about where and how lizards are surviving in cities, and what potential exists for their restoration. I investigated species diversity and abundance of lizards in New Zealand cities, making comparisons with historical species distributions to inform urban restoration and investigating the potential role that participatory conservation might play in their protection. To collate current knowledge about past and present distributions of urban-dwelling lizards, I reviewed records for six New Zealand cities from published and unpublished literature and databases. Little research was identified from cities and the majority of lizard records were of one-off sightings, or surveys related to salvage or biosecurity operations. Comparing current species records with historical species distributions, it found that the diversity of lizards in all of the cities has declined dramatically since human colonisation. To begin to fill the identified knowledge gap and to provide baselines for future monitoring, I carried out skink surveys in four cities and trialled a citizen science project that collected public sighting records from residential backyards. Surveys undertaken in urban habitats captured four species of endemic skink: Oligosoma aeneum in Hamilton, O. polychroma, O. aeneum and O. ornatum in Wellington, O. polychroma in Nelson, and O. aff. polychroma Clade 5 in Dunedin. Site occupancy and number of captures were highly variable among the species and cities, with a very high proportion of sites occupied by skinks in Nelson and Wellington compared with Hamilton and Dunedin. Modelling showed O. polychroma catch per unit effort was positively related to rat tracking rates when grass cover was low but showed a negative relationship when grass cover was high. Higher proportions of urban land cover within 500 m were negatively associated with body condition. The public sightings website gathered more than 100 records from around the Wellington region over one summer, suggesting citizen science may be a cost-effective solution for building knowledge about lizards in residential gardens that are otherwise difficult to survey. While skink sightings were reported from all over the city, gecko sightings appeared in clusters. Compared with a random sample of street addresses, both skink and gecko sightings were more common closer to forest land cover, but only skink sightings were more common in backyards that were north facing. Finally, I administered a questionnaire survey to understand how socio- demographic characteristics relate to willingness to engage in three different pro-conservation activities that might benefit lizards: pest mammal trapping, biodiversity monitoring and pest mammal monitoring. Public willingness to engage in all three activities was positively related to respondents’ nature relatedness and nature dosage, while only the two monitoring activities were positively related to education. The relationship between willingness and nature relatedness was weaker for pest trapping than it was for the two monitoring activities, suggesting that willingness to trap may be determined by factors other than environmental concern. Native lizards are an important component of New Zealand’s urban biodiversity. Despite cities having lost significant proportions of their original lizard fauna, a wide variety of habitats in cities still support numerous species. Some of these species seem well adapted to cope with the challenges of urban living, while further research is required to understand whether populations of other species are stable or in decline. To ensure the persistence of lizards in cities, further surveys using a variety of methods should be undertaken to assess lizard diversity and abundance in urban habitats and understand population trends of rare and sparsely distributed species. Public sightings may provide a useful starting point for assessing distribution patterns and allowing the targeting of surveys. In the future, through urban restoration, cities may offer opportunities to conserve a larger proportion of endemic species by reintroducing species that have become regionally extinct.</p>

Gaze correlates of view preference: Comparing natural and urban scenes

When looking out of a window, natural views are usually associated with restorative qualities and are given a higher preference than urban scenes. Previous research has shown that gaze behaviour might differ based on the natural or urban content of views. A lower number of fixations has been associated with the aesthetic evaluation of natural scenes while, when looking at an urban environment, a high preference has been correlated with more exploratory gaze behaviours. To characterise gaze correlates of view preference across natural and urban scenes, we collected and analysed experimental data featuring subjective preference ratings, eye-tracking measures, verbal reasoning associated with preference and nature relatedness scores. Consistent with the literature, our results confirm that natural scenes are more preferred than urban views and that gaze behaviours depend on view type and preference. Observing natural scenes was characterised by lower numbers of fixations and saccades, and longer fixation durations, compared to urban views. However, for both view types, most preferred scenes led to more fixations and saccades. Our findings also showed that nature relatedness may be correlated with visual exploration of scenes. Individual preferences and personality attributes, therefore, should be accounted for in studies on view preference and gaze behaviour.

Examining the Mediating Role of Altruism in the Relationship between Empathic Tendencies, the Nature Relatedness, and Environmental Consciousness

A study was conducted using a correlational screening model to determine the mediating effect of altruism in the relationship between empathic tendencies, the nature relatedness and environmental consciousness. The participants of the study, selected via random cluster sampling design, are composed of 305 pre-school teachers working in pre-schools and kindergartens in a city located in Turkey’s Aegean region. The ‘Empathic Tendency Scale’, ‘Altruism Scale’, ‘Nature Relatedness Scale’, and ‘Environmental Consciousness Scale’ were used as data collection tools. The analyses of the sub-purposes were carried out using the PROCESS macro (Model 4) developed by Andrew Hayes using the SPSS infrastructure. When the study results were examined, the indirect effects of the empathic tendency on nature relatedness and environmental consciousness were found to be significant. Thus, altruism was the mediator for the relationship between the empathic tendency and nature relatedness (β=.13, 95% BCA CI [.08; .19]) and for the relationship between emphatic tendency and environmental consciousness (β=.36, %95 BCA CI [.18; .57]).

Urban nature at the fingertips: Investigating wild food foraging to enable nature interactions of urban dwellers

Meaningful human–nature interactions can counteract the extinction of experience and positively influence people’s nature relatedness, health and wellbeing. In this study, we explored urban wild food foraging to understand how best to enable human-nature interactions in cities by means of foraging. Using a structured questionnaire, a total of 458 residents of Vienna, Austria were surveyed. Sixty-four percent of visitors of public urban green spaces previously foraged for wild food species, whereas foraging frequencies were related to the targeted plant species and their life forms. People who foraged more frequently had greater nature relatedness, more childhood foraging experiences and lived on the outskirts of the city, but their socio-demographic backgrounds were heterogeneous. Social acceptance and lack of access to wild foods were perceived to be barriers. To promote nature relatedness through urban foraging, the legal framework, access to low-contamination foraging areas, availability of wild foods and social acceptance need to be improved.

Cumulative Frequency of Nature Dose: How Continuous and Regular Forest Walking Improves Nature Relatedness, Restorativeness, and Learning Engagement in College Students

Forest is a natural resource that provides natural walking as a popular leisure activity for urban residents. From the perspective of “dose of nature,” continuous contact with natural environments and engagement in natural activities can gradually promote positive health benefits. This study aims to explore the “cumulative frequency of nature dose” through regular forest walking. Ten college students were recruited to walk once a week for 30 min in the campus forest. Eight weeks of forest walking experiences were collected by administering questionnaires on nature relatedness, mental health, restorativeness, and learning engagement before the first walk, as well as after the fourth and the eighth walks. The findings of this study revealed that regular forest activities can induce accumulated natural benefits. By taking at least 30 min of forest walks once a week continuously for eight weeks, the subjects improved their mental health, increased learning engagement in school, gained more attention recovery and reflection experiences, and re-established a relationship with nature. In addition, different doses of natural benefits were observed for different cumulative processes.

Deciphering landscape preferences: Investigating the roles of familiarity and biome types

Although people generally have positive evaluations of natural environments and stimuli, theory and research suggest that certain biomes are more preferable than others. Existing theories often draw on evolutionary ideas and people’s familiarity with biome types, with familiarity being the most supported, albeit not conclusively, in existing research. Across three samples (n = 720) we sought to compare preference ratings of 40 images that represented ten biomes (beach, lake, tropical and temperate forest, marsh, swamp, meadow, park, mountain, and river). We addressed objective familiarity by recruiting samples from two distinct geographies (Florida and Ontario), and we assessed subjective familiarity via image ratings. Familiarity was positively associated with liking biomes, though this trend was stronger for subjective familiarity compared to geography. Substantial variation in biome type preferences could not be attributed to familiarity. Specific biome types were strongly preferred irrespective of familiarity and geography. e.g., beaches and lakes were highly preferred, while marshes and swamps were substantially less preferred than other biome types. Further analyses found that the individual difference of nature relatedness predicted both familiarity and liking of all biomes except beaches, and that there was a lack of seasonal effects (fall and winter) across two Ontario samples. We discuss how results provide qualified support for the familiarity view, limits of this interpretation, how methodological choices such as the number of ratings might impact findings, and the potential applications of these results in landscape design.

What Environmental and Personal Factors Determine the Implementation Intensity of Nature-Based Education in Elementary and Lower-Secondary Schools?

As society becomes increasingly urbanized, children are becoming much less likely to experience nature. This progressive disengagement from the natural world, often termed the ‘extinction of experience’, has been viewed both as a key public health issue and one of the most fundamental obstacles to halting global environmental degradation. School education has an important role in mitigating and reversing the ongoing extinction of experience. Here, we examine the role of several factors that determine the implementation intensities of nature-based education by science teachers in the classrooms of both primary and secondary schools. We performed a large-scale questionnaire survey comprising 363 elementary and 259 lower-secondary schoolteachers. Several factors predicted the implementation intensity of nature-based education in schools. The most important predictor was teachers’ levels of nature-relatedness, with nature-orientated teachers being more likely to provide nature-based education in their classes. Levels of teachers’ ecological knowledge, frequency of childhood nature experiences, and greenness within the school were also positively associated with the implementation intensity of education. Our results suggest that, to promote nature-based education in schools, it is important to increase schoolteachers’ nature-relatedness and ecological knowledge, as well as to provide more green spaces within schools.