Development and plasticity of complex movement representations

The motor cortex is topographically organized into maps of different body parts. We used to think that the function of motor cortex was to drive individual muscles, but more recently we have learned that it is also organized to make complex movements. However, the development and plasticity of those complex movements is completely unknown. In this paper, the emergence and topography of complex movement representation, as well as their plasticity during development, is detailed.

The influence of the intervention time on the motor learning process induced through movement representation techniques: a randomized controlled pilot trial

Objective: The main aim was to assess motor learning process comparing action observation (AO), motor imagery (MI), and double time of MI (2MI) at post- and at 1-week post-intervention through Purdue-Pegboard test. The secondary objectives were to assess if improvements enhanced the ability to imagine and the perceived fatigue. Methods: 20 healthy subjects were randomly assigned to AO group, MI group, 2MI group or placebo observation group. Results: Results in right hand test showed that AO group obtained improvements at post- and at 1-week post-intervention, both with a large effect size (p = .049, d = -1.28 and p = .049, d = -1.4). In left hand test MI group obtained better results than placebo group (p = .016, d = 2.21). In both hand test MI presented differences at the post- and at 1-week post-intervention (p = .006, d = -2.28 and p = .009, d = -1.89). No within- and between-group differences were found in sequence test. With respect to the perceived fatigue, both MI and 2MI showed greater levels of fatigue (p = .003, and p = .045). Finally, no within- and between-group differences were found in the ability to imagine (p > .05). Conclusions: Both movement representation techniques enhanced motor learning, although the results must be considered with caution due to the small sample size. MI seems to cause more fatigue than AO. However, increasing imagery time did not results in greater level of fatigue. The improvements did not lead to an increase in the ability to imagine.

The Role of Movement Representation Techniques in the Motor Learning Process: A Neurophysiological Hypothesis and a Narrative Review

We present a neurophysiological hypothesis for the role of motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) training in the motor learning process. The effects of movement representation in the brain and those of the cortical–subcortical networks related to planning, executing, adjusting, and automating real movements share a similar neurophysiological activity. Coupled with the influence of certain variables related to the movement representation process, this neurophysiological activity is a key component of the present hypothesis. These variables can be classified into four domains: physical, cognitive–evaluative, motivational–emotional, and direct-modulation. The neurophysiological activity underlying the creation and consolidation of mnemonic representations of motor gestures as a prerequisite to motor learning might differ between AO and MI. Together with variations in cognitive loads, these differences might explain the differing results in motor learning. The mirror neuron system appears to function more efficiently through AO training than MI, and AO is less demanding in terms of cognitive load than MI. AO might be less susceptible to the influence of variables related to movement representation.

Tourism Mobilities through Time in China: A Developmental and Holistic Lens

Under the mobilities paradigm, a lens of tourism mobilities extends the scope of tourism studies in ontology and phenomenology. The observation of some limitations in the extant tourism mobilities literature leads to the design of a study to investigate the changing nature of tourism mobilities in a society from all three aspects of the phenomenon (i.e., movement, representation, and practice). Based on the principles of weak constructionism, this study adopted means of biographical grid in-depth interviews—a retrospective longitudinal mode of data collection—and biographic analytical framework to analyze and to chronicle mobilities in China. The findings offer a longitudinal (1950–present) and context-specific account of the evolving nature of tourism mobilities and their interrelationship with the macro-environment. This study enriches the conceptualization of tourism mobilities by providing empirical evidence for the developmental and holistic nature of tourism mobilities in China.