Case Study of Anatomy, Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Sapwood and Heartwood of Random Tree Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco from South-Eastern Poland

Oriental arborvitae is not fully characterized in terms of its microscopic structure or physical or mechanical properties. Moreover, there is a lot of contradictory information in the literature about oriental arborvitae, especially in terms of microscopic structure. Therefore, the sapwood (S) and heartwood (H) of Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco from Central Europe were subjected to examinations. The presence of helical thickenings was found in earlywood tracheids (E). Latewood tracheids (L) were characterized by a similar thickness of radial and tangential walls and a similar diameter in the tangential direction in the sapwood and heartwood zones. In the case of earlywood tracheids, such a similarity was found only in the thickness of the tangential walls. The volume swelling (VS) of sapwood and heartwood after reaching maximum moisture content (MMC) was 12.8% (±0.5%) and 11.2% (±0.5%), respectively. The average velocity of ultrasonic waves along the fibers (υ) for a frequency of 40 kHz was about 6% lower in the heartwood zone than in the sapwood zone. The dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOED) was about 8% lower in the heartwood zone than in the sapwood zone. These differences, both in the case of υ and MOED, were statistically significant. However, no statistically significant differences were found for the static bending strength (MOR, approx. 90 MPa), modulus of elasticity at static bending (MOE, approx. 4800 MPa), or compression strength parallel to the grain (CS, approx. 47 MPa) in relation to the wood zone (sapwood, heartwood).

Wood Anatomy of Argophyllaceae (Asterales): Adaptation in a Small Clade

Argophyllaceae (Argophyllum, 14 spp.; Corokia, 6 spp.; Lautea, 1 sp.), are shrubs that occur in the southwestern Pacific and eastern Australia. They occur in habitats where moisture is relatively common but dry days and mild frost may occur. The woods of these genera show enough distinctive features to justify their grouping in a single family: perforation plates with 10–20 bars, vessel elements narrow and numerous per mm2, imperforate tracheary elements about 50% longer than the vessel elements, axial parenchyma scarce, diffuse, multiseriate rays narrow and heterocellular (upright cells common in uniseriate rays), crystals absent, gum deposits common. These features group the genera of Argophyllaceae more closely with each other than with the nearest families in Asterales (Alseuosmiaceae, Phellinaceae). Probable apomorphies of the genera include helical thickenings in vessels and tracheids, together with abundant tracheids and rare septate fiber-tracheids (Corokia); almost total absence of axial parenchyma and tracheids combined with maximal abundance of septate fiber-tracheids and no helical thickenings (Argophyllum, Lautea). Lautea, formerly included within Corokia, has floral and foliar distinctions and is endemic to a single island, Rapa Iti. Woods of Argophyllaceae are alike in their ecological adaptations (perforation plates, vessel diameter and density) but the presence of tracheids and helical thickenings in Corokia suggest adaptations to frost and mild drought. As expected, vessels group more prominently in the tracheid-free species (Argophyllum, Lautea) but very little in the tracheid-rich genus Corokia.

Wood identification of an ancient Greek coffin from the Bosporan Kingdom

Wood identification of 13 samples is made for the first time for the well-preserved coffin from the Bosporan Kingdom exhibited in the State Hermitage Museum. Due to the decay state, observation was carried out with Scanning Electron Microscopy. Additional information was obtained from macerated material. The samples studied show a complex of characteristics common to the Cupressaceae family: axial tracheids without helical thickenings, presence of axial parenchyma, homogeneous rays, cupressoid cross-field pits, and absence of resin canals. The presence of dark-stained content in the ray cells and the structure of its end walls, as well as the size of the rays, allow the determination of the wood samples as Cupressus sp. and Juniperus sp. The supporting parts of the coffin construction are made from cypress, while the decorative details and an inner bed are from juniper. These results support the dating of the coffin and the known information about different usage of timbers in the production of coffins in the Bosporan Kingdom.

Using Lenses Attached to a Smartphone as a Macroscopic Early Warning Tool in the Illegal Timber Trade, in Particular for CITES-Listed Species

Wood anatomy is a key discipline as a tool for monitoring the global timber trade, particularly for wood listed in protected species conventions such as Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). One of the main barriers to reducing illegal trafficking of protected species is ensuring that customs officials with appropriate training in wood anatomy are equipped with simple tools, at both the origin and destination of shipments, so they can raise an early warning about wood suspected of contravening international treaties and immediately send samples to a specialised laboratory. This work explains how lenses attached to a smartphone, capable of achieving up to 400× magnification using the phone digital zoom, can be used to distinguish features that are not visible with traditional 10× or 12× lenses, enhancing the capacity to view features not typically observable in the field. In softwoods, for example, this method permits determination of the type of axial parenchyma arrangement, whether there are helical thickenings in axial tracheids and whether axial tracheids have organic deposits or contain alternate polygonal pits, and in the rays, if the tracheids are smooth-walled or dentate and if the cross-field pits are window-like. In hardwoods, it allows verification of the presence of tyloses and deposits in vessels, the type of perforation plates and whether the intervascular pitting is scalariform; in the rays it is possible to differentiate the types of ray cells; and in the axial parenchyma, to determine the presence of oil cells. In addition, unlike macroscopic analysis with a conventional magnifying lens, this type of lens can be used with the appropriate mobile application for the biometry of important elements such as ray height and vessel diameter.

Stem and leaf structure of Searsia erosa (Thunb.) Moffett (Anacardiaceae) with systematic, ecological and ethnobotanical implications

The anatomy of stems and leaves of the southern African evergreen shrub Searsia erosa (Anacardiaceae) was studied. This species shows the suite of typical traits of Anacardiaceae, such as the presence of secretory canals in the cortex, secondary phloem, wood rays and vascular bundle of leaf midrib, pericyclic fibres in nearly continuous bands, compound sieve plates on oblique walls, simple perforation plates, alternate intervessel pitting, and septate libriform fibres. Like other Searsia species, S. erosa has abundant sclereids in non-conducting secondary phloem, multicellular peltate glandular trichomes on leaf epidermis, short vessel elements and minute intervessel pits; two latter characters are thought to be diagnostic for this genus. Unlike Asian species of Searsia, S. erosa lacks marginal axial parenchyma as well as prismatic crystals in axial parenchyma and in libriform fibres, but it shows the helical thickenings on vessel walls. The presence of the last trait in a southern African species agrees with association of helical thickenings with the regions that experience water stress. The tangential expansion of secondary phloem in S. erosa and probably in other Searsia species is mainly performed by considerable increase in volume of its cells by their sclerification. Such a way of bark growth in girth is out of scope of bark anatomists. Searsia erosa is distinctive from other congeneric species in its hypostomatous leaves with abundant glandular trichomes on adaxial side. This condition demonstrates a labor division between the adaxial side with glandular trichomes that may contribute to leaf protection, and the stomata-bearing abaxial side providing the gas exchange. Unlike most members of Anacardiaceae, the secretory canals of S. erosa produce the oleoresin containing terpenoids (essential oils) and lipids, but lack polysaccharides. The abundance of glandular trichomes and secretory canals producing terpenoids is a presumable reason of the use of S. erosa in traditional medicine by the Basotho people.

Localization of actin filaments and cortical microtubules in wood-forming tissues of conifers

ABSTRACT The aim of the present study was to investigate the orientation and localization of actin filaments and cortical microtubules in wood-forming tissues in conifers to understand wood formation. Small blocks were collected from the main stems of Abies firma, Pinus densiflora, and Taxus cuspidata during active seasons of the cambium. Bundles of actin filaments were oriented axially or longitudinally relative to the cell axis in fusiform and ray cambial cells. In differentiating tracheids, actin filaments were oriented longitudinally relative to the cell axis during primary and secondary wall formation. In contrast, the orientation of well-ordered cortical microtubules in tracheids changed from transverse to longitudinal during secondary wall formation. There was no clear relationship between the orientation of actin filaments and cortical microtubules in cambial cells and cambial derivatives. Aggregates of actin filaments and a circular band of cortical microtubules were localized around bordered pits and cross-field pits in differentiating tracheids. In addition, rope-like bands of actin filaments were observed during the formation of helical thickenings at the final stage of formation of secondary walls in tracheids. Actin filaments might not play a major role in changes in the orientation of cortical microtubules in wood-forming tissues. However, since actin filaments were co-localized with cortical microtubules during the formation of bordered pits, cross-field pits and helical thickenings at the final stage of formation of the secondary wall in tracheids, it seems plausible that actin filaments might be closely related to the localization of cortical microtubules during the development of these modifications of wood structure.

Anatomía de la madera de las especies mexicanas de Salvia sección Erythrostachys Epl. (Lamiaceae)

The wood anatomy of Salvia pubescens, S. regla, and S. sessei is described. These species are included within the section Erythrostachys, subgenus Calosphace, genus Salvia. Two samples were collected for each species to obtain permanent slides. Transverse, radial and tangential sections were used to describe the anatomy of each taxon. The wood has ring porosity, the tangential vessel diameter is small (34-85 μm), the vessel elements are short (94-257 μm) with alternate pitting, helical thickenings and simple perforation plates. Vasicentric tracheids are present. Axial parenchyma is paratracheal scanty, apotracheal diffuse, and marginal. Rays are uniseriate and multiseriate, heterogeneous, aggregate and non aggregate. Libriform fibers are septate and non septate. Gums, tyloses, starch grains and prismatic crystals were observed. These features agree with previous reports for the genus.

Wood anatomy of Tetraclinis articulata from its natural distribution area in southeast Spain

For the first time, the wood anatomy of Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Masters has been studied using representative samples from its natural distribution area in Spain, in Sierra de Cartagena (Region of Murcia). Mature wood was collected from five individuals representative of the forest stand and their anatomy was compared with other genera of the Cupressaceae. Axial tracheids without helical thickenings, low homogeneous rays, cupressoid pits and the absence of normal axial resin canals are characteristic features of this monotypic genus, as they are of most other Cupressaceae genera. An obvious warty layer separates this wood from the genera sharing its territory (Cupressus and Juniperus) and its semi-spherical, slightly anastomosed warts distinguish it from other, geographically distant genera (Actinostrobus and Callitris). The presence of traumatic axial resin canals is reported for the first time and supports the occurrence of this feature outside the Pinaceae. The wood anatomical diversity within the clade comprising Tetraclinis, Microbiota and Platycladus, as reconstructed by molecular analysis, is discussed.

Comparative wood anatomy of Taxaceae

Comparative wood anatomy of Taxaceae s.l. was examined to elucidate the differences in wood features among genera. In total, 25 samples, comprising three varieties and seven species from five genera (Pseudotaxus was not included), were examined. Sliding microtome, wood maceration and scanning electron microscopy methods were used for the study. The growth rings are well developed and early and late wood are distinguishable in a cross-section. In general, there is remarkable uniformity in the characteristics of the five genera of Taxaceae, although some differences in quantitative traits were found. Wood of Taxaceae s.l. differs from that of most conifers by having helical thickening in the tracheid inner walls, with the exception of Austrotaxus spicata R.H.Compton. All genera are characterised by the absence of resin canals, predominantly uniseriate pits on the radial wall of the axial tracheids, and the presence of pits on the tangential walls of the axial tracheids. The rays are composed solely of parenchyma cells and are uniseriate (occasionally biseriate in Torreya nucifera (L.) Siebold et Zucc.), with a height of 1–22 cells. The genus Taxus shares more characteristics with Torreya than with Amentotaxus, Austrotaxus and Cephalotaxus. Correspondingly, Amentotaxus and Cephalotaxus resemble each other, marked by the presence of either diffuse or sparse axial parenchyma with nodulated transverse walls. Austrotaxus spicata is the sole species that lacks helical thickenings in the tracheid walls and has sparse axial parenchyma with smooth transverse walls. These two features, namely, the absence of helical thickenings and axial parenchyma with smooth transverse walls, are plesiomorphic and might be considered a more primitive character in wood anatomy. Among the other four genera, Amentotaxus appears to have an annular type of wall thickening that could be considered plesiomorphic to the spiral thickenings found in Taxus, Torreya and Cephalotaxus.