Reading Psalms Sapientially in the Writings

The study of wisdom in the Psalms has often been limited to identifying particular “wisdom psalms.” This chapter widens the purview by setting Psalms and Proverbs in hermeneutical dialogue with each other and specifically by examining Psalms from the perspective of what Proverbs commends and values. Such an analysis highlights both similarities and differences between these two complex corpora. The sapiential “rebuke” in Proverbs finds its counterpart in “complaint” in the Psalms, but with an altogether different object of address. The shared language of “righteousness” in the Psalms is given a more theocentric cast than in Proverbs. The conjunction of Psalm 111 and Psalm 112 is particularly telling: while the profile of human righteousness in Psalm 112 coheres with Proverbs, its compositional linkage to its “twin” lays claim that human righteousness cannot stand on its own. The language of “seeking” and salvation is also compared, revealing pronounced rhetorical differences.

Writings in the Dead Sea Scrolls

This chapter argues that the Writings was an evolving collection of scripture used in a wide variety of ways by the Dead Sea Scrolls community at Qumran (second century bce to first century ce). Though the Hebrew word Ketuvim (Writings) does not occur in the Scroll material, all but one (Esther) of the books contained therein are found. The plentiful and varied textual evidence at Qumran, and occasionally other Judean desert sites, is presented with special attention to the number of biblical and other manuscripts and place found; textual comparisons with the biblical Masoretic text and others (e.g., Septuagint); citations; and other interpretive uses in sectarian documents. The importance of the books in the Writings for the life of the late postexilic community of Qumran and the nature of the Dead Sea Scrolls biblical collection are, together, a constant focus of the study.

The Wisdom of Desire in the Song of Songs

The Song of Songs offers a unique discussion of the experience of sexual longing through dialogues of an unnamed woman and man. The chapter focuses on the use of dialogic structure to frame three prominent discourses of desire: aesthetic appreciation, affective description, and subjective expressions of sexual arousal. These varied discourses affirm a polyphonic view on human desire from the embodied experience of the male and female voices of the Song. With its use of dialogue, the Song is characteristic of the Writings in offering a diversity of perspectives. The chapter further probes the canonical contribution of the Song’s testimony to human longing, sex, joy, and biodiversity.

Aspects of Jewish Reception of the Ketuvim (Writings)

This chapter discusses three aspects of Jewish reception of the Ketuvim (Writings or Hagiographa): the status and authority of the Ketuvim in relation to the Torah (Pentateuch) and the Nevi’im (Prophets); the study and liturgical use of Ketuvim, focusing on the so-called Five Scrolls (hamesh megillot) and the Book of Psalms; and the character of traditional commentary on selected books, including recommendations for further reading. The Ketuvim were considered sacred and inspired, but at a lower level of inspiration than the Torah and the Prophets. They were regarded as diverting and edifying, but insufficiently authoritative to support the promulgation of law, which was the fundamental concern of rabbinic teaching and learning. On the whole, Jewish commentators seek to find consistency in the interpretation of the individual books, “taming” their originality in order to conform their meanings both to the rest of Scripture and to normative Jewish teachings.

Archaeology of the Postexilic Period and the Writings

This chapter provides an overview of archaeological discoveries relevant to ancient Judean life in the postexilic or Second Temple period (late sixth century bce–70 ce). It seeks to provide background information on the main cultural developments that would have impacted the authors and audience of the Writings, both in Judea and Samaria. One such development is Persian provincialization, which had only modest impact on the local economy and culture. Another consists of processes of acculturation to foreign customs in the Hellenistic period, which would remain slow and largely limited to elite circles. Jerusalem’s rise to international status as a Jewish pilgrimage center under Herodian auspices likely impacted the dissemination of local literatures and sacred texts, the Writings among them. Contemporaneous architecture and artifacts from the domestic sphere can speak to religious diversity and local identity politics as the region began to shift its orientation to the West and the economy grew.

The Reception of the Writings and Their Place in the Biblical Canon

This chapter explores the origin and order of the Writings along with their emergence from the larger corpus of prophets included in the Hebrew Bible. It focuses also on the somewhat mixed reception of some of those texts in Judaism and early Christianity as well as the tripartite structure of the Hebrew Bible compared with the quadripartite structure of the Christian Old Testament, as well as the question of whether the latter was a Christian innovation or derived from an element of Judaism in the first century ce before Christians separated from Judaism. The recent questions about the significance of the order of the Christian Old Testament canon will also be examined below.

Studying the Writings as Postexilic Literature and Canon

This chapter argues for the import and value of studying the Writings, the third canonical division of the Hebrew Bible. Special attention is given to the postexilic background of the Writings and the history of scholarship devoted to this literature as canon in the last fifty years. The challenges of studying this division are named and discussed, including the following: diversity and difference within the corpus; the puzzle of its structure; the use of many methods to evaluate and articulate its characteristics and message; its relationship to Torah and Prophets; and the much debated history of canonization. The significance of studying the Writings for both scholars and the faith communities that use them as scripture is a constant theme.

Apocalyptic Visions and Revisions of the End in the Writings

Apocalyptic literature demonstrates an obsession with time. This chapter suggests that the elaborate descriptions and predictions of world history found in apocalypses produced an intrinsic need within apocalyptic communities for textual revision. Since apocalypses are framed as revelations, it was no simple matter to change them. Apocalyptic communities developed the practice of revelatory exegesis in order to revise failed prophecies and revitalize them for the contemporary events and concerns. This chapter analyzes Daniel 9 and 12, 4 Ezra, 4QApocryphon of Jeremiah, and 1QPesher Habakkuk in order to highlight how apocalyptic writers and communities used revelatory exegesis to revise failed prophecies.

Lamentations and Canon

Lamentations uses distinct voices to explore the suffering caused by the destruction of Jerusalem and exile of her people. A dialogical approach to the book emphasizes the theological tension created as the poet considers the fate of Israel’s relationship with Yahweh. This dialogue is carried on at multiple levels, within the text itself, over against the silenced divine voice, between Lamentations and other books in the biblical canon, and between the text and its later interpreters. Utilizing the language of prayer and drawing on the divine name, Lamentations centers on the question of God’s continued presence with the Israel. A faithful rendering and reception of Lamentations attends to the multiple voices of the text, respects and provides place for their varied perspectives and contributions, identifies and engages with the community they address and of which they are a part, maintains space for an unspeaking God, and guards the open-ended question which is at the heart of this troubling exchange.

Ancient Near Eastern Religions and the Writings

A survey of the Writings shows surprisingly little contact with the religious environment of the Ancient Near East, in which Jews lived in the late first millennium bce. The reasons for this lack do not derive from lack of opportunity but from the self-confidence of the Jewish tradition in the face of polytheism. This finding seems to show that the sense of Judaism as all-sufficient and convincingly monotheistic had been established at least in the minds of the people who brought together the Writings. Although Jews in the late first century bce were exposed to a cacophony of other religious traditions, their interactions do not show up in the Writings, except as critiques or mocking of other traditions.