Popular Imperialism, Democracy, Conservatism and Socialism, 1850–1900

This chapter reviews the political sympathies of soldiers – both officers and rank and file - in the age of high Victorian imperialism and emerging British democracy. It examines the role of the army in growing working class support for popular imperialism, often fuelled by racism. Whilst it acknowledges the overall tendency for officers to support Conservatism, it uncovers tenacious support for Liberalism on the part of some of the officer corps. This extended to many of the rank and file in the post-Chartist period, with post discharge soldiers actively supporting all types of reform movements and taking an active part in the mass democracy brought about by the 1867 and 1884 Reform Acts. With the development of socialism from the 1880s this even extended to a significant number of ‘soldier socialists’, surveyed here for the first time.

Loyalism, Nationalism and the Army, 1790–1860

In contrast to chapters 3, 4 and 5, this chapter examines the traditional anti-foreigner and particularly anti-French feeling shared by many working class people. It examines how this aided the British army in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and assesses how it contributed to the strengthening of political loyalism rather than radicalism. The account looks at examples of extraordinary rank and file unsolicited wartime bravery, and general keeness for battle which were promoted by post war commemoration and growing loyalty amongst soldiers to the martial traditions of their regiments. With rank and file support for regiment, army and nation, and with the army’s growing imperial role after 1815, this loyalism was combined with incipient imperialism. In addition, the survival of officer paternalism, albeit patchy, contributed to rank and file loyalty, often absorbing the anti-radicalism of the officer class. All this contributed to soldiers almost universally ‘doing their duty’ and explains why radical subversion was unsuccessful and why regiments could be safely used by the Victorian authorities against Chartists and strikers.

Politics and the Military, 1790–1832

This chapter reviews the involvement of soldiers in conventional politics in the early nineteenth century. In contrast to the leeway which allowed officers to be involved in politics (both as voters and MPs), the rank and file were discouraged from taking part. It outlines military policies of Whigs and Tories in the early nineteenth century and profiles key individual officers. It discusses the emergent influence of political radicalism on both parties, with some Whig officers embracing the concept, in contrast to Tory anathema.

Introduction

In common with its companion volume - Soldiers as Workers – Class, employment, conflict and the nineteenth century military (2016), this study argues that class is the primary means of understanding the topic. Focusing on rank and file soldiers it concludes that they were not a separate caste. Instead, soldiering was often just a phase in civilian working lives. The nineteenth century was overshadowed by the mass mobilisation required for the generation-long French Wars and concurrent Industrial Revolution, with emerging working-class popular politics. The chapter reviews developing working class literacy and subsequent growth of rank and file memoirs, which are an important source for this study. The chapter stresses the importance of the new barrack system in the UK and the growth of British Empire, both of which had profound consequences for British society.

Conclusion

This short chapter reviews the overall arguments of the book. It concludes with the conjunction of contrasting and often competing concepts of nationalism and socialism in the Great War of 1914-18. Partly through a survey of soldier socialists, like Colonel John Ward, MP and union leader, and Mick Mannock, socialist air ace, it concludes that the majority of the British labour movement supported the war effort. It argues that in the long term the emergence of Labour as a party of government and the foundation of the welfare state, owed much to the experiences of citizen soldiers of nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Military Radicals, 1790–1850

This chapter is a detailed chronological description and analysis of the military and political careers of important early nineteenth century soldier and ex-soldier activists, both rank and file and junior officers. This covers late eighteenth century military radicals, and the impact of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, through to popular reforming movements like Owenism, co-operation and Chartism. It makes a special study of the influential Napier Brothers, who were successful senior officers and committed political radicals. This all forms a unique and untold story of ‘military radicals’.

Overseas Military Adventurers, 1770–1861

This chapter covers largely forgotten overseas military adventurers, who served in private armies between 1815 and 1860. They were mainly contracted as mercenaries by liberal or nationalist revolutionaries in South America and parts of Southern Europe. Given the intense government prosecution of radicalism in the post Waterloo period and the failure of potential or actual insurrection, some ex-soldiers went overseas to avoid persecution. The complex wars of liberation, particularly in South America, enabled these men to pursue their old trade whilst serving a progressive cause. The careers of both officers and rankers are analysed in the Americas, Greece, Spain, Portugal and Italy, with an assessment of their commitment to political radicalism. A special study is made of the largest group – the British Auxiliary Legion, 1835-8 - raised by the threatened Spanish liberal government.

Protest and Subversion, 1790–1850

This chapter outlines government concerns about the danger of insurrection in the early nineteenth century and fear of soldiers’ subversion and involvement on the side of radical revolution. It reviews the reality of these claims, analysing soldiers’ involvement in key events and incidents. These range through riots and protests in the 1790s, the distribution of radical handbills subverting troops, the Despard Conspiracy, Luddism, the Post War discontent of 1815-6, working-class drilling and the use of government spies, Peterloo, the Scottish revolt of 1820, the Cato Street Conspiracy, the Queen Caroline agitation, the Reform Crisis of 1831-2, and Chartism. The chapter concludes that whilst some threats were serious, British rank and file soldiers always obeyed officers and did their duty to Crown and country, so revolution was unlikely.

Radicalism and the Military, 1790–1860

This chapter reviews radical political attitudes to the military, especially criticism of purchase of officers’ commissions and the punishment floggings of the rank and file. It gives an account of radical military theory, particularly the impractical concepts of a ‘people in arms’ and pike warfare. It concludes that attempts by radicals to win over as soldiers as friends, had mixed results but that soldiers often possessed knowledge of radical ideas and political events. This even extended to soldiers siding with the people in riots against the authorities. Radicalism was also carried overseas by some soldiers and emerged in parts of the new British Empire. The chapter makes a particular study of key radical ex-soldier figures like John Cartwright, William Cobbett and Richard Carlile.