The Nineteenth Century

Chapter four recounts the arrival of Malagasy leaders on the islands of Mwali and Mayotte in order to profoundly shape the history of the latter island, sold to France to become a colony in 1841. The political maneuvers between France, Britain, Madagascar and Zanzibar had significant consequences on the three smaller islands, particularly as the British tried to suppress the slave trade, the fulcrum of local economies and the source of labor for French plantations on Mayotte. Only Ngazidja remained apart, until finally, towards the end of the century, both Britain and Zanzibar renounced their claims to and influence over the archipelago and France declared protectorates over the three westernmost islands. The development of struggling plantation economies on all the islands and the loss of their historical economic mercantile activities would spell economic disaster for the islands.

Federation, Separatism and Union

A further coup d’etat in 1995 did nothing to improve the national economy, mismanagement and the national Ngazidja-dominated government’s lack of sensitivity. It finally led to a declaration of independence instituted by the island of Ndzuani in 1997. An armed intervention to restore order was a disastrous failure, and following the death of president Taki a military government led by Azali Assoumani took over and negotiated an agreement between the islands that finally led to the establishment of a new structure – the Union of the Comoros – that was intended to guarantee the islands a degree of autonomy. A rotating presidency was largely symbolic and the political struggles of the early 21st century were personified by Ngazidja’s Azali and Ndzuani’s Sambi, the former, re-elected president, potentially for ten years, in 2019, becoming increasingly authoritarian. Meanwhile, Mayotte became a French department.

The Comorian People

The final chapter looks more closely at the islands’ people: their matrilineal kinship systems, age systems, associated rituals and powerful forces for social cohesion. It surveys their material culture, clothing, music and food, and explores the different types of social and ethnic identities that Comorians might invoke, particularly the hierarchies that continue to distinguish the noble born, those of Arab ancestry, and the descendants of slaves, the African, particularly on Ndzuani. On Mayotte, now firmly part of France, different identities are at play. The importance of the Comorian diaspora is explained, whether in Zanzibar, Madagascar or in France, and their contribution, particularly in terms of remittances, to local economic development. This chapter ends with some reflections on the future of the archipelago – both the independent state and French Mayotte.

Independence, Revolution and Mercenaries

Chapter six begins with a survey of the local economy and the problems facing the new state. A coup d’état that occurred a month after independence led to a revolutionary government under Ali Soilihi, which took power and attempted to restructure the economy, as well as society more widely. Increasingly radical, faced with empty coffers and the return of 16,000 Comorians fleeing riots in Madagascar, the government was finally overthrown in a coup d’état in 1978, which ushered in a decade of despotic rule by Ahmed Abdallah, supported by Bob Denard and his mercenaries. Political repression and economic and political dependence on France and South Africa saw the country increasingly marginalized until Abdallah was finally assassinated in 1989. Meanwhile Mayotte moved closer to France, which had pledged a substantial investment program and showed no signs of abandoning the island.

Colonial Neglect and the Growth of Political Awareness

The incorporation of the islands into the colony of Madagascar, as a remote and neglected province, led to economic decline. Colonial plantation owners expropriated large tracts of land leaving little for the local populations. The colonial government lacked the resources to develop the colony and there was a limited understanding of local culture. The customary wedding systems developed significantly during the colonial era, as did Sufism, the latter of which was of some concern to the French. Following the Second World War growth in political awareness was slow and the archipelago was not ready to accede to independence as other colonies had done in 1960. Growing differences between Mayotte and the other islands led to outbreaks of violence, and when territorial president Ahmed Abdallah finally declared independence in 1975, Mayotte chose to remain French.

Written History

Europeans arrived in the Indian Ocean at the end of the fifteenth century, and this chapter explores the evidence for the presence of the Portuguese before analyzing the development of the islands both as trading centers in the customary local networks and their development as supply points on the route between Europe and Asia. The French, Dutch and, above all the English were frequent visitors to the islands, initially Mwali, later Ndzuani; the latter island was to remain very firmly within an English, later British sphere of influence for more than two centuries, and this chapter discusses their role in local events. It also explores the different cultural influences on the islands and the cosmopolitan character of the people, their customs, social structures and material culture, as well as analyzes the histories of and conflicts between the four islands. This chapter closes with the devastating Malagasy slave raids at the end of the eighteenth century.

From the Origins

Chapter two begins by providing an overview of the prehistory and early history of the western Indian Ocean, setting the Comoros in the wider context. It then goes on to discuss various hypotheses regarding the first settlement of the islands, based on the archaeology of the islands, the nearby African coast and Madagascar. Genetic analysis and archaeological findings confirm the contributions of Arab, Austronesian and African settlers to the local population. The basic social structures of the islands’ people are discussed, matrilineality and the development of religious practices following the arrival of Islam, drawing on both oral traditions and archaeological evidence. It looks at how the islands were incorporated into wider trading systems and, with the arrival of Shirazis, a regional cultural complex.

The Context

This chapter begins with an overview of the Comoros, briefly discussing their culture, providing an overview of the historical background to the islands’ development as well as surveying the origins of the population, their culture and their relationships with the outside world. It then moves on to provide some background for the rest of the book, surveying the physical and environmental context in more detail, including the geology, climate, flora and fauna. It covers the volcanic landscapes, the marine life including the coelacanth, and the environmental problems that the islands face. It discusses resources and the potential for economic activities based on local physical and environmental assets. It ends with an economic and political portrait of the archipelago as it stands at the beginning of the 21st century.