ABSTRACT
In this study, infection of 293/ACE2 cells with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) activated several apoptosis-associated events, namely, cleavage of caspase-3, caspase-8, and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP), and chromatin condensation and the phosphorylation and hence inactivation of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α). In addition, two of the three cellular eIF2α kinases known to be virus induced, protein kinase R (PKR) and PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK), were activated by SARS-CoV. The third kinase, general control nonderepressible-2 kinase (GCN2), was not activated, but late in infection the level of GCN2 protein was significantly reduced. Reverse transcription-PCR analyses revealed that the reduction of GCN2 protein was not due to decreased transcription or stability of GCN2 mRNA. The specific reduction of PKR protein expression by antisense peptide-conjugated phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers strongly reduced cleavage of PARP in infected cells. Surprisingly, the knockdown of PKR neither enhanced SARS-CoV replication nor abrogated SARS-CoV-induced eIF2α phosphorylation. Pretreatment of cells with beta interferon prior to SARS-CoV infection led to a significant decrease in PERK activation, eIF2α phosphorylation, and SARS-CoV replication. The various effects of beta interferon treatment were found to function independently on the expression of PKR. Our results show that SARS-CoV infection activates PKR and PERK, leading to sustained eIF2α phosphorylation. However, virus replication was not impaired by these events, suggesting that SARS-CoV possesses a mechanism to overcome the inhibitory effects of phosphorylated eIF2α on viral mRNA translation. Furthermore, our data suggest that viral activation of PKR can lead to apoptosis via a pathway that is independent of eIF2α phosphorylation.
Immunoproteasome induction is suppressed in hepatitis C virus-infected cells in a protein kinase R-dependent manner
