Disinfection aboard cruise liners and naval units: Formation of disinfection by-products using chlorine dioxide in different qualities of drinking water

Abstract A study was initiated to determine the presence of organic disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water treated with chlorine dioxide (ClO2). One potential advantage for the use of ClO2 as a disinfectant is the reduced formation of organic DBPs. Generally, water treated with ClO2 produces chlorite and chlorate ions, but there is limited information regarding the presence of halogenated organic DBPs. Eight systems that use chlorine dioxide as part of the water disinfection process were investigated. All systems in this study applied chlorine as a primary or secondary disinfectant in addition to ClO2. To evaluate seasonal and spatial variations, water samples were collected during cold water (February to March 2003) and warm water (July to August 2003) months at five sites for each system: raw water (R, before treatment), treated water (T, after treatment but before distribution), and three points along the same distribution line (D1, D2, D3). Sampling and analysis were conducted according to established protocols. A suite of 27 organic DBPs including haloacetic acids (HAA), trihalomethanes (THM), haloacetonitriles (HAN), haloketones, haloacetaldehydes (HA), chloropicrin, and cyanogen chloride were examined. In addition, the concentration of oxyhalides (chlorite and chlorate ions) and auxiliary parameters were also determined. Chlorite was found in treated (T) and distributed (Dx) waters. The chlorite ion levels decreased along the distribution system (T > D1 > D2 > D3). At T sites, the levels ranged from 10 to 870 µg/L (winter), and from 300 to 1,600 µg/L (summer). Chlorite was not found in treated or distributed water in the one system that used ozone. Chlorate ion levels ranged from 20 to 310 µg/L (winter), and 80 to 318 µg/L (summer). Chlorate levels remained relatively constant throughout the distribution system. THM and eight HAA (HAA8) accounted for approximately 85% of the total DBPs (wt/wt) analyzed, followed by total HA (up to 7%) and HAN (3%). THM in distributed water were found at concentrations between 1.8 and 30.6 µg/L (winter), and 3.3 and 93.6 µg/L (summer). For HAA8, the levels ranged from 13 to 52 µg/L (winter), and 16 to 111 µg/L (summer). Chloral hydrate ranged from 0.2 to 5.2 µg/L (winter), and 0.4 to 12.2 µg/L (summer). The temporal and spatial variations observed in previous studies were confirmed in the current study as well.

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Disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide (chlorite, chlorate, and trihalomethanes): Occurrence in drinking water in Qatar

Chemosphere ◽

10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.09.008 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 164 ◽

pp. 649-656 ◽

Cited By ~ 37

Author(s):

Fatima Al-Otoum ◽

Mohammad A. Al-Ghouti ◽

Talaat A. Ahmed ◽

Mohammed Abu-Dieyeh ◽

Mohammed Ali

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Chlorine Dioxide ◽

By Products

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Progress on Drinking Water Treatment with Chlorine Dioxide

Advanced Materials Research ◽

10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.848.255 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 848 ◽

pp. 255-258 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Yu Zhong Guo ◽

Yan Zhen Yu ◽

Ming Li ◽

Guang Yong Yan

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Water Treatment ◽

Chlorine Dioxide ◽

Drinking Water Treatment ◽

Water Disinfection ◽

Water Quality Standards ◽

Water Pretreatment ◽

Detection Technology ◽

Filter Water ◽

By Products

By the reason of strong responses activity and oxidation ability, Chlorine dioxide as oxidant and disinfectant has been applied to peroxidation and disinfection more and more widely.In this paper, it give an account of the preparation of chlorine dioxide, as oxidants to raw water pretreatment, used in filter water disinfection ,the detection technology of chlorine dioxide and disinfection by-products, the water quality standards formulated by domestic and overseas chlorine dioxide in using chlorine dioxide, and summarized progress on drinking water treatment with chlorine dioxide .

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Effects of combined calcium hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide on drinking water quality in Qatar and disinfection by-products formation

10.5004/dwt.2017.21895 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 100 ◽

pp. 333-339 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Elsamoul H. Mohamed ◽

Hassan I. Nimir ◽

Joseph A. Cotruvo ◽

Mustafa M. Osman

Keyword(s):

Water Quality ◽

Drinking Water ◽

Chlorine Dioxide ◽

Drinking Water Quality ◽

Calcium Hypochlorite ◽

By Products

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Chlorine dioxine DBPs (disinfection by-products) in drinking water

Journal of Biological Research - Bollettino della Società Italiana di Biologia Sperimentale ◽

10.4081/jbr.2013.3669 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 86 (1) ◽

Author(s):

C. Lasagna ◽

E. Raffo ◽

M. Bianchi ◽

L. Pocaterra

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Ion Chromatography ◽

Chlorine Dioxide ◽

Human Consumption ◽

Analytical Technique ◽

Experimental Part ◽

Italian Regions ◽

By Products ◽

Different Origin

Since the 1970s it has been well known that, though water for human consumption is generally disinfected before being distributed along the network, the use of chemicals results in the formation of many different Disinfection By-Products (DBPs). In the case of chlorine dioxide, the most important and represented DBPs are chlorite and chlorate: after an introduction concerning the current Italian regulation on this subject, in the experimental part the results of a 7-year minitoring campaign, concerning water of different origin collected from taps in various Italian regions, are shown. The analytical technique used for the determination of chlorite and chlorate was Ion Chromatography. The result obtained are finally discussed.

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The formation and control of emerging disinfection by-products of health concern

Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences ◽

10.1098/rsta.2009.0108 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 367 (1904) ◽

pp. 4077-4095 ◽

Cited By ~ 169

Author(s):

Stuart W. Krasner

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Chlorine Dioxide ◽

Drinking Water Treatment ◽

Treated Wastewater ◽

Health Concern ◽

Treatment Processes ◽

Wide Range ◽

And Control ◽

Emerging Dbps ◽

By Products

When drinking water treatment plants disinfect water, a wide range of disinfection by-products (DBPs) of health and regulatory concern are formed. Recent studies have identified emerging DBPs (e.g. iodinated trihalomethanes (THMs) and acids, haloacetonitriles, halonitromethanes (HNMs), haloacetaldehydes, nitrosamines) that may be more toxic than some of the regulated ones (e.g. chlorine- and bromine-containing THMs and haloacetic acids). Some of these emerging DBPs are associated with impaired drinking water supplies (e.g. impacted by treated wastewater, algae, iodide). In some cases, alternative primary or secondary disinfectants to chlorine (e.g. chloramines, chlorine dioxide, ozone, ultraviolet) that minimize the formation of some of the regulated DBPs may increase the formation of some of the emerging by-products. However, optimization of the various treatment processes and disinfection scenarios can allow plants to control to varying degrees the formation of regulated and emerging DBPs. For example, pre-disinfection with chlorine, chlorine dioxide or ozone can destroy precursors for N -nitrosodimethylamine, which is a chloramine by-product, whereas pre-oxidation with chlorine or ozone can oxidize iodide to iodate and minimize iodinated DBP formation during post-chloramination. Although pre-ozonation may increase the formation of trihaloacetaldehydes or selected HNMs during post-chlorination or chloramination, biofiltration may reduce the formation potential of these by-products.

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Disinfection of Drinking Water Rich in Bromide with Chlorine and Chlorine Dioxide, While Minimizing the Formation of Undesirable By-Products

Water Science & Technology ◽

10.2166/wst.1985.0164 ◽

1985 ◽

Vol 17 (4-5) ◽

pp. 611-621 ◽

Cited By ~ 14

Author(s):

Ch. Rav-Acha ◽

A. Serri ◽

E. (Goldstein) Choshen ◽

B. Limoni

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Chlorine Dioxide ◽

Organic Materials ◽

Organic Precursors ◽

Pre Treatment ◽

The Impact ◽

By Products

Although chlorine dioxide does not form trihalomethanes (THM) and produces very few non-volatile haloorganic materials in drinking water, intensive investigations bearing on the formation of chlorite by ClO2 disinfection reveal that the rate of chlorite formation reflects the rate of ClO2 consumption and as long as the amount of ClO2 applied is behind its demand, about 60% of the chlorine dioxide consumed is converted into chlorite. Mixtures of Cl2 and ClO2, which may successfully reduce the formation of haloorganic compounds, as well as of chlorite in the absence of bromide, fail to do this where water rich in bromide is concerned. As a result of bromide oxidation by chlorine, bromine is formed, which in turn reacts more intensively with organics than does chlorine and thus favours the formation of THM and other halogenated organic materials. This problem can, however, be circumvented if ClO2 is allowed to react in water with the organic precursors before chlorine is introduced. A pre-treatment with 1 ppm of ClO2 two hours before the application of 2 ppm Cl2, was found to reduce the formation of THM by 60% relative to its formation by chlorine alone, and the chlorite is reduced in this case by up to 90% relative to its formation by chlorine dioxide alone. This is of particular importance since it can solve some of the major problems bearing on the impact of disinfection upon the formation of undesirable by-products.

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The Removal Effect on Chironomus kiiensis larvae and Mutagenicity in Urban Water Source with Chlorine Dioxie

Advanced Materials Research ◽

10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.113-116.744 ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 113-116 ◽

pp. 744-749

Author(s):

Xing Bin Sun ◽

Fu Yi Cui ◽

Zhao Chao Hou ◽

Lin Meng

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Chlorine Dioxide ◽

Drinking Water Treatment ◽

Water Source ◽

Pilot Scale ◽

Molecular State ◽

Water Treatment Process ◽

Disinfection Process ◽

Eutrophic Water ◽

By Products

Chironomus kiiensis larvae which cannot be exterminated by conventional disinfection process propagates prolifically in eutrophic water body, and it therefore turns to be a potential problem encountered in drinking water quality. In order to tackle this problem, a pilot-scale study of removal effect on Chironomus kiiensis larvae with chlorine dioxide in a waterworks is performed. The experiment results showed that Chironomus kiiensis larvae can be effectively removed from water by 0.55 mg/L chlorine dioxide pre-oxidation combined with the conventional drinking water treatment process. Higher oxidizability and molecular state of chlorine dioxide in water is the key to the inactivation of Chironomus kiiensis larvae. The chlorite, disinfection by-products (DBPs) of chlorine dioxide, is stable at 0.217 mg/L, which is lower than that critical value of the WHO. Ames test revealed that the mutagenicity was reduced by chlorine dioxide with respect to prechlorine. The propagation of Chironomus kiiensis larvae can be inactivated effectively and safely by chlorine dioxide pre-oxidation.

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Genotoxicity and effects of nanosilver contamination in drinking water disinfection

Water Science & Technology Water Supply ◽

10.2166/ws.2012.053 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 12 (6) ◽

pp. 829-836 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Slaven Dobrović ◽

Hrvoje Juretić ◽

Davor Ljubas ◽

Ivana Vinković Vrček ◽

Maja Zebić Avdičević ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Chlorine Dioxide ◽

Water Samples ◽

Water Disinfection ◽

Water Supply Systems ◽

Bromide Ion ◽

Drinking Water Disinfection ◽

Almost All ◽

Ion Incorporation ◽

By Products

This study was conducted to examine the genotoxicity and the influence of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) contamination when drinking water is exposed to five different disinfection treatments: chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, ozone/chlorine and ozone/chlorine dioxide. Experiments were conducted with water samples of different chemical composition, from three water supply systems in Croatia. AgNPs are of interest because of their use as an antimicrobial in numerous commercial products, and as a drinking water disinfection agent. To examine possible effects of AgNP contamination, the disinfection treatments were repeated with AgNPs in the water samples. AgNP contamination generally caused a decrease in the level of trihalomethanes by up to 59%. Influence of AgNPs on bromide ion incorporation into disinfection by-products (DBPs) was also examined. The most obvious example was the Osi water where ozonation step prior to chlorination increased the bromine incorporation factor from 0.156 to 0.339, while addition of AgNPs limited the increase to 0.249. Also, AgNP presence in almost all disinfection treatments increased dicarbonyl disinfection by-products. All treated waters were tested for genotoxicity using the comet assay and showed similar genotoxic potential. The results are preliminary, but could provide a basis for further studies evaluating the environmental impact of AgNPs in natural aquatic systems.

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Application of Chlorine Dioxide in Drinking Water Disinfection

Advanced Materials Research ◽

10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.461.497 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 461 ◽

pp. 497-500

Author(s):

Deng Ling Jiang ◽

Bo Wen Chen ◽

Guo Wei Ni

Keyword(s):

Drinking Water ◽

Chlorine Dioxide ◽

Production Cost ◽

Tap Water ◽

Water Disinfection ◽

High Quality ◽

Taste And Odor ◽

Water Plant ◽

Drinking Water Disinfection ◽

By Products

Chlorine dioxide was applied to drinking water for reducing the quantity of organic pollutants such as chloroform and the taste and odor problems. A modified mode for operation in tap water plant was proposed following an investigation of the reaction mechanism by which ClO2 reacts with aquatic organic materials. By using such techniques, by-products such as chlorite and chlorate were effectively minimized and high quality drinking water was produced with reduced production cost of water treatment.

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