Space saving statistics: An introduction to constant error, variable error, and absolute error.

Human motor learning is often measured by error scores. The convention of using mean absolute error, mean constant error, and variable error shows lack of desirable parsimony and interpretability. This paper provides the background of error measurement and states criticisms of conventional methodology. A parsimonious model of error analysis is provided, along with operationalized interpretations and implications for motor learning. Teaching, interpreting, and using error scores in research may be simplified and facilitated with the model.

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Anticipation of Coincidence, Gender, and Sports Classification

Perceptual and Motor Skills ◽

10.2466/pms.1996.82.1.227 ◽

1996 ◽

Vol 82 (1) ◽

pp. 227-239 ◽

Cited By ~ 25

Author(s):

Frank Brady

Keyword(s):

Constant Error ◽

Absolute Error ◽

Female Students ◽

Male And Female ◽

Error Constant ◽

Variable Error ◽

Gender And Sports ◽

And Gender

This study investigated the effects of sport classification and gender on anticipation of coincidence. 102 undergraduate male and female students from open skills, closed skills, and nonathletic groups were tested on the Bassin Anticipation Timer. The dependent measures of absolute error, constant error, and variable error were analyzed in a 2 (gender) × 3 (sport classification) × 4 (speeds) design. Men had lower absolute and constant error scores than women. Open skills athletes were less variable in their responses while male open skills athletes were more accurate and less variable at the faster speeds. Performance on the Bassin Anticipation Timer may not be representative of athletic skills.

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A Preliminary Comparison of Stimulus Presentation Methods with the Bassin Anticipation Timing Task

Perceptual and Motor Skills ◽

10.2466/pms.1997.85.1.344 ◽

1997 ◽

Vol 85 (1) ◽

pp. 344-346 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Melanie A. Hart ◽

T. Gilmour Reeve

Keyword(s):

Target Location ◽

Constant Error ◽

Stimulus Presentation ◽

Absolute Error ◽

Timing Errors ◽

Preliminary Comparison ◽

Variable Error ◽

Timing Task ◽

Response Performance ◽

Presentation Methods

The Bassin Anticipation Timing Task was used to compare response performance when the stimulus terminated at the target location to when the stimulus continued past the target location. Two conditions (terminating and continuing) were tested by measuring timing errors on the task. Analyses indicated no significant differences in absolute error and variable error between the conditions. However, analysis of constant error showed a significant effect, with the timing errors being fewer on the terminating condition. These results suggest that the two stimulus presentation methods with the Bassin Anticipation Task differentially influence timing performance.

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Noise-Enhanced Eversion Force Sense in Ankles With or Without Functional Instability

Journal of Athletic Training ◽

10.4085/1062-6050-50.5.06 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 50 (8) ◽

pp. 819-824 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Scott E. Ross ◽

Shelley W. Linens ◽

Cynthia J. Wright ◽

Brent L. Arnold

Keyword(s):

Constant Error ◽

Ankle Instability ◽

Muscle Tension ◽

Absolute Error ◽

Functional Ankle Instability ◽

Maximum Voluntary Isometric Contraction ◽

Error Measures ◽

Variable Error ◽

Main Effects ◽

Force Sense

Context Force sense impairments are associated with functional ankle instability. Stochastic resonance stimulation (SRS) may have implications for correcting these force sense deficits. Objective To determine if SRS improved force sense. Design Case-control study. Setting Research laboratory. Patients or Other Participants Twelve people with functional ankle instability (age = 23 ± 3 years, height = 174 ± 8 cm, mass = 69 ± 10 kg) and 12 people with stable ankles (age = 22 ± 2 years, height = 170 ± 7 cm, mass = 64 ± 10 kg). Intervention(s) The eversion force sense protocol required participants to reproduce a targeted muscle tension (10% of maximum voluntary isometric contraction). This protocol was assessed under SRSon and SRSoff (control) conditions. During SRSon, random subsensory mechanical noise was applied to the lower leg at a customized optimal intensity for each participant. Main Outcome Measure(s) Constant error, absolute error, and variable error measures quantified accuracy, overall performance, and consistency of force reproduction, respectively. Results With SRS, we observed main effects for force sense absolute error (SRSoff = 1.01 ± 0.67 N, SRSon = 0.69 ± 0.42 N) and variable error (SRSoff = 1.11 ± 0.64 N, SRSon = 0.78 ± 0.56 N) (P < .05). No other main effects or treatment-by-group interactions were found (P > .05). Conclusions Although SRS reduced the overall magnitude (absolute error) and variability (variable error) of force sense errors, it had no effect on the directionality (constant error). Clinically, SRS may enhance muscle tension ability, which could have treatment implications for ankle stability.

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Effects of a Combination of Stances and Points of Aim on Putting Accuracy

Perceptual and Motor Skills ◽

10.2466/pms.1988.66.1.139 ◽

1988 ◽

Vol 66 (1) ◽

pp. 139-143 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Erich Gott ◽

Carl Mc Gown

Keyword(s):

Analysis Of Variance ◽

Repeated Measures ◽

Traditional Method ◽

Constant Error ◽

Popular Opinion ◽

Variable Error ◽

Repeated Measures Analysis ◽

Better Than

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of two putting stances (conventional versus side-saddle) and two points of aim (ball versus hole) on putting accuracy. Subjects (12 men, 4 women) were taught to putt using four methods: (a) conventional stance, eyes on the ball; (b) conventional stance, eyes on the hole; (c) side-saddle stance, eyes on the ball; and (d) side-saddle stance, eyes on the hole. Each subject practiced each method for 2 wk., after which they were tested for purring accuracy by counting putts made, determining constant error, and by calculating variable error. Accuracy was assessed at 5 and 15 ft. A 2 by 2 repeated-measures analysis of variance showed that there was no single combination of stance and point of aim that was significantly better than another at either distance. This suggests that, contrary to popular opinion, the traditional method of putting is not the best method for putting; other methods are equally as good and could be used if individually desired.

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Development of Performance Evaluation Tests for Environmental Research (Peter): Time Estimation

Perceptual and Motor Skills ◽

10.2466/pms.1980.51.2.655 ◽

1980 ◽

Vol 51 (2) ◽

pp. 655-665 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Michael E. Mc Cauley ◽

Robert S. Kennedy ◽

Alvah C. Bittner

Keyword(s):

Performance Evaluation ◽

Performance Test ◽

Constant Error ◽

Time Estimation ◽

Environmental Research ◽

Unique Contribution ◽

Repeated Testing ◽

Estimation Task ◽

Variable Error ◽

Time Estimation Task

A time-estimation task was considered for inclusion in the Performance Evaluation Tests for Environmental Research (PETER) battery. As part of this consideration, the effects of repeated testing on the reliability of time judgments were studied. The method of production was used to estimate eight time intervals. Five trials per day at each interval were administered individually to each of 19 subjects for 15 consecutive workdays. Two scores, constant error and variable error, were reported. The effect of days was not significant for constant error and was moderate for variable error ( p < .04). The standard deviations were relatively stable across trials. A pronounced decline in reliability over repeated days of testing was found for both errors. It was concluded that this time-estimation test would be a poor candidate for inclusion in PETER, but further research is warranted because of the potential unique contribution of a time-estimation task in a performance test battery.

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Lumbo-pelvic proprioception in sitting is impaired in subgroups of low back pain–But the clinical utility of the differences is unclear. A systematic review and meta-analysis

PLoS ONE ◽

10.1371/journal.pone.0250673 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 16 (4) ◽

pp. e0250673

Author(s):

Vasileios Korakakis ◽

Kieran O’Sullivan ◽

Argyro Kotsifaki ◽

Yiannis Sotiralis ◽

Giannis Giakas

Keyword(s):

Low Back Pain ◽

Back Pain ◽

Clinical Utility ◽

Constant Error ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Low Back ◽

Variable Error ◽

Subgroup Analyses ◽

Asymptomatic Individuals ◽

Meta Analyses

Background Altered spinal postures and altered motor control observed among people with non-specific low back pain have been associated with abnormal processing of sensory inputs. Evidence indicates that patients with non-specific low back pain have impaired lumbo-pelvic proprioceptive acuity compared to asymptomatic individuals. Objective To systematically review seated lumbo-pelvic proprioception among people with non-specific low back pain. Methods Five electronic databases were searched to identify studies comparing lumbo-pelvic proprioception using active repositioning accuracy in sitting posture in individuals with and without non-specific low back pain. Study quality was assessed by using a modified Downs and Black’s checklist. Risk of bias was assessed using an adapted tool for cross-sectional design and case–control studies. We performed meta-analysis using a random effects model. Meta-analyses included subgroup analyses according to disability level, directional subgrouping pattern, and availability of vision during testing. We rated the quality of evidence using the GRADE approach. Results 16 studies met the eligibility criteria. Pooled meta-analyses were possible for absolute error, variable error, and constant error, measured in sagittal and transverse planes. There is very low and low certainty evidence of greater absolute and variable repositioning error in seated tasks among non-specific low back pain patients overall compared to asymptomatic individuals (sagittal plane). Subgroup analyses indicate moderate certainty evidence of greater absolute and variable error in seated tasks among directional subgroups of adults with non-specific low back pain, along with weaker evidence (low-very low certainty) of greater constant error. Discussion Lumbo-pelvic proprioception is impaired among people with non-specific low back pain. However, the low certainty of evidence, the small magnitude of error observed and the calculated “noise” of proprioception measures, suggest that any observed differences in lumbo-pelvic proprioception may be of limited clinical utility. PROSPERO-ID CRD42018107671

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Tests of Blind Pedestrians’ Use of Traffic Sounds for Street-crossing Alignment

Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness ◽

10.1177/0145482x8908300910 ◽

1989 ◽

Vol 83 (9) ◽

pp. 461-468 ◽

Cited By ~ 18

Author(s):

D.A. Guth ◽

E.W. Hill ◽

J.J. Rieser

Keyword(s):

Visual Experience ◽

Constant Error ◽

Directional Bias ◽

Independent Variables ◽

Street Crossing ◽

Variable Error ◽

Dependent Variables ◽

Orientation And Mobility

This article reports three experiments that assessed pedestrians’ ability to use traffic sounds to establish “alignment,” the initial trajectory of a street crossing. The subjects were well practiced blind adults and unpracticed sighted adults, the dependent variables were variable error and constant error, and the independent variables were the characteristics of traffic and the subjects’ visual experience. The findings document the usefulness of traffic sounds, but show that traffic sounds cannot be used to guarantee accurate alignment. The characteristics of traffic had similar effects on the precision of alignment (variable error) of the blind and sighted subjects, but differentially affected their directional bias (constant error). The implications of the findings for orientation and mobility instructors are discussed.

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RESEARCH NOTE: On Controlling Inert Gas Narcosis

Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society ◽

10.1177/001872089203400111 ◽

1992 ◽

Vol 34 (1) ◽

pp. 115-120 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Barry Fowler ◽

Elizabeth Pang ◽

Ian Mitchell

Keyword(s):

Nitrous Oxide ◽

Information Processing ◽

Response Bias ◽

Constant Error ◽

Conventional Wisdom ◽

Research Note ◽

Inert Gas ◽

Perceptual Sensitivity ◽

Variable Error ◽

Influence Variable

Ten subjects breathed experimental mixtures of 20% and 35% nitrous oxide (N2O) balanced with oxygen and then aligned a pointer with a target using vision, kinesthesis, or combinations of these senses. In a prior session the subjects had been trained on the task with feedback while breathing N2O. The results showed that N2O did not influence variable error (VE), constant error, (CE), or absolute CE, but perceptual conditions influenced VE and absolute CE. These results suggest that the demonstration by Legge (1965) of changes in the variability and accuracy of matching on this task under N2O are indicative of changes in response bias and/or attention rather than perceptual sensitivity. It is argued that narcosis slows rather than distorts information processing. Slowing is accompanied by strategic changes that may be maladaptive. This suggests that, contrary to conventional wisdom, the safety and efficiency of divers exposed to narcosis could be improved with training.

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Augmented Feedback for Enhanced Skill Acquisition in Individuals with Traumatic Brain Injury

Perceptual and Motor Skills ◽

10.2466/pms.1996.82.2.507 ◽

1996 ◽

Vol 82 (2) ◽

pp. 507-514 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

Ronald Croce ◽

Michael Horvat ◽

Glenn Roswal

Keyword(s):

Traumatic Brain Injury ◽

Brain Injury ◽

Skill Acquisition ◽

Repeated Measures ◽

Absolute Constant ◽

Constant Error ◽

Augmented Feedback ◽

Knowledge Of Results ◽

Variable Error

Coincident timing by individuals who exhibit traumatic brain injury was measured under conditions of no knowledge of results (no KR; n = 12), KR on every trial ( n = 14), summary KR ( n = 13), and average KR ( n = 12). Following acquisition trials, groups performed immediate and longer retention trials without KR. Absolute constant error and variable error, analyzed in separate repeated-measures analyses of variance, indicated that during acquisition trials subjects receiving KR on every trial were the most accurate and the most consistent in their responses; however, subjects in groups receiving summary and average KR were the most accurate during immediate retention, with the group receiving summary KR being the most accurate during longer retention.

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