Among temperate rice areas, the United States and Australia are most similar in climate and in the mechanisation of rice culture. Many weed problems, even weed species invading rice, are common to both countries; and the present technology for weed control as well as concern for the impact of these technologies to environmental quality, herbicide resistance, and other weed-related issues bear many similarities. Application of current, and any new, technologies to emerging issues in US rice weed control will therefore be directly relevant to rice production in Australia and all other temperate areas struggling with the same challenges. Weeds are a significant problem in temperate rice culture. In the United States, rice is mechanically direct-seeded, allowing weeds to germinate and establish with the crop. In the last 15 years weed growth and competition has been increased by the adoption of semi-dwarf cultivars, high N fertilisation, and, in water-seeded rice, shallow flooding. High rates, and often multiple applications, of herbicides have been necessary to maximise the yield potential of these cultural systems. Advances in cultural practices and herbicide technology have maintained, if not improved, weed control; but nearly 30 years of propanil use in the southern USA resulted in propanil-resistant barnyard grass Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv., and after 4 years of continuous use, bensulfuron resistance to 4 aquatic weed species was discovered in California. Although herbicides with different mechanisms of action are needed for alternation in resistance management strategies, fewer are likely to be available. Social and environmental concerns have slowed the development and registration of rice herbicides and increased the cost of controlling weeds. Water quality deterioration from ricefield tailwaters, drift to sensitive crops, the cost of renewing registration in aquatic systems, and weed resistance all forecast reduced herbicide use in rice. Neither cultural practices nor herbicides alone can solve weed problems in direct-seeded, mechanised rice culture. With fewer herbicides and a cultural system highly vulnerable to weed losses, integrated management strategies with better information on which to base weed control decisions will be needed to solve weed problems in temperate rice.
Spray deposition, adjuvants, and physiochemical properties affect benzobicyclon efficacy
