Phylogenetic investigation of skin sloughing rates in frogs: relationships with skin characteristics and disease-driven declines

Amphibian skin is highly variable in structure and function across anurans, and plays an important role in physiological homeostasis and immune defence. For example, skin sloughing has been shown to reduce pathogen loads on the skin, such as the lethal fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ( Bd ), but interspecific variation in sloughing frequency is largely unknown. Using phylogenetic linear mixed models, we assessed the relationship between skin turnover rate, skin morphology, ecological traits and overall evidence of Bd -driven declines. We examined skin sloughing rates in 21 frog species from three continents, as well as structural skin characteristics measured from preserved specimens. We found that sloughing rate varies significantly with phylogenetic group, but was not associated with evidence of Bd -driven declines, or other skin characteristics examined. This is the first comparison of sloughing rate across a wide range of amphibian species, and creates the first database of amphibian sloughing behaviour. Given the strong phylogenetic signal observed in sloughing rate, approximate sloughing rates of related species may be predicted based on phylogenetic position. While not related to available evidence of declines, understanding variation in sloughing rate may help explain differences in the severity of infection in genera with relatively slow skin turnover rates (e.g. Atelopus ).

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Establishement of a national monitoring program based on environmental DNA for amphibians and the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

ARPHA Conference Abstracts ◽

10.3897/aca.4.e65362 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 4 ◽

Author(s):

Omneya Osman ◽

Johan Andersson ◽

Tomas Larsson ◽

Mats Töpel ◽

Alexander Eiler

Keyword(s):

Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis ◽

National Level ◽

Monitoring Program ◽

12S Rrna ◽

Rrna Gene ◽

Chytrid Fungus ◽

Rana Arvalis ◽

Amphibian Species ◽

National Monitoring ◽

Wide Range

National monitoring programs provide the basis for evaluating the integrity of ecosystems, their responses to disturbances, and the success of actions taken to conserve or recover biodiversity. In this study, we successfully established a national program for the invasive chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) based on dual TaqMan assays. Amphibian diversity based on metabarcoding of the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene was also performed. Assays were optimized for sensitive detection of target species from a wide range of amphibian ponds with variable potential of inhibitions for eDNA based detection. An amphibian mock community of 5 species was used to validate the metabarcoding approach while internal standards were used in the case of the dual TaqMan assays. First sampling of over 170 ponds in Norway resulted in Bd detection in 12 environmental samples and one swab sample taken over multiple years indicating the establishment of Bd in Norway. Five amphibian species Bufo bufo, Lissotriton vulgaris, Triturus cristatus, Rana arvalis and Rana temporaria as predicted from data in long-term citizen science reporting systems were widely detected in the collected eDNA samples. Our large scale-monitoring program indicates a low risk of a Bd outbreak and amphibian decline caused by chytridiomycosis but continued monitoring is recommended in the future. These findings indicate that eDNA is an effective method to detect invasive species, and to monitor endangered amphibian species. Still, several shortcomings (such as PCR inhibitors and sample volume) were identified that need to be addressed to improve eDNA-based monitoring at the national level.

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Antifungal Bacteria on Woodland Salamander Skin Exhibit High Taxonomic Diversity and Geographic Variability

Applied and Environmental Microbiology ◽

10.1128/aem.00186-17 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 83 (9) ◽

Cited By ~ 12

Author(s):

Carly R. Muletz-Wolz ◽

Graziella V. DiRenzo ◽

Stephanie A. Yarwood ◽

Evan H. Campbell Grant ◽

Robert C. Fleischer ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Fungal Pathogen ◽

Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis ◽

Bacterial Species ◽

Rrna Gene ◽

Amphibian Skin ◽

Amphibian Species ◽

Protective Function ◽

Content Type ◽

Skin Bacteria ◽

Salamander Species

ABSTRACT Diverse bacteria inhabit amphibian skin; some of those bacteria inhibit growth of the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Yet there has been no systematic survey of anti-B. dendrobatidis bacteria across localities, species, and elevations. This is important given geographic and taxonomic variations in amphibian susceptibility to B. dendrobatidis. Our collection sites were at locations within the Appalachian Mountains where previous sampling had indicated low B. dendrobatidis prevalence. We determined the numbers and identities of anti-B. dendrobatidis bacteria on 61 Plethodon salamanders (37 P. cinereus, 15 P. glutinosus, 9 P. cylindraceus) via culturing methods and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. We sampled co-occurring species at three localities and sampled P. cinereus along an elevational gradient (700 to 1,000 meters above sea level [masl]) at one locality. We identified 50 anti-B. dendrobatidis bacterial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) and found that the degree of B. dendrobatidis inhibition was not correlated with relatedness. Five anti-B. dendrobatidis bacterial strains occurred on multiple amphibian species at multiple localities, but none were shared among all species and localities. The prevalence of anti-B. dendrobatidis bacteria was higher at Shenandoah National Park (NP), VA, with 96% (25/26) of salamanders hosting at least one anti-B. dendrobatidis bacterial species compared to 50% (7/14) at Catoctin Mountain Park (MP), MD, and 38% (8/21) at Mt. Rogers National Recreation Area (NRA), VA. At the individual level, salamanders at Shenandoah NP had more anti-B. dendrobatidis bacteria per individual (μ = 3.3) than those at Catoctin MP (μ = 0.8) and at Mt. Rogers NRA (μ = 0.4). All salamanders tested negative for B. dendrobatidis. Anti-B. dendrobatidis bacterial species are diverse in central Appalachian Plethodon salamanders, and their distribution varied geographically. The antifungal bacterial species that we identified may play a protective role for these salamanders. IMPORTANCE Amphibians harbor skin bacteria that can kill an amphibian fungal pathogen, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Some amphibians die from B. dendrobatidis infection, whereas others do not. The bacteria that can kill B. dendrobatidis, called anti-B. dendrobatidis bacteria, are thought to influence the B. dendrobatidis infection outcome for the amphibian. Yet how anti-B. dendrobatidis bacterial species vary among amphibian species and populations is unknown. We determined the distribution of anti-B. dendrobatidis bacterial species among three salamander species (n = 61) sampled at three localities. We identified 50 unique anti-B. dendrobatidis bacterial species and found that all of the tested salamanders were negative for B. dendrobatidis. Five anti-B. dendrobatidis bacterial species were commonly detected, suggesting a stable, functional association with these salamanders. The number of anti-B. dendrobatidis bacteria per individual varied among localities but not among co-occurring salamander species, demonstrating that environment is more influential than host factors in structuring the anti-B. dendrobatidis bacterial community. These anti-B. dendrobatidis bacteria may serve a protective function for their salamander hosts.

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Bioclimatic and anthropogenic variables shape the occurrence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis over a large latitudinal gradient

Scientific Reports ◽

10.1038/s41598-021-96535-w ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Mario Alvarado-Rybak ◽

Manuel Lepe-Lopez ◽

Alexandra Peñafiel-Ricaurte ◽

Andrés Valenzuela-Sánchez ◽

Catalina Valdivia ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Latitudinal Gradient ◽

Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis ◽

Biodiversity Loss ◽

Quantitative Real Time Pcr ◽

Amphibian Skin ◽

Amphibian Species ◽

Risk Areas ◽

Host Ecology ◽

New Evidence ◽

Central South

AbstractAmphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has caused the greatest known loss of biodiversity due to an infectious disease. We used Bd infection data from quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assays of amphibian skin swabs collected across Chile during 2008–2018 to model Bd occurrence with the aim to determine bioclimatic and anthropogenic variables associated with Bd infection. Also, we used Bd presence/absence records to identify geographical Bd high-risk areas and compare Bd prevalence and infection loads between amphibian families, ecoregions, and host ecology. Data comprised 4155 Bd-specific qPCR assays from 162 locations across a latitudinal gradient of 3700 km (18º to 51ºS). Results showed a significant clustering of Bd associated with urban centres and anthropogenically highly disturbed ecosystems in central-south Chile. Both Bd prevalence and Bd infection loads were higher in aquatic than terrestrial amphibian species. Our model indicated positive associations of Bd prevalence with altitude, temperature, precipitation and human-modified landscapes. Also, we found that macroscale drivers, such as land use change and climate, shape the occurrence of Bd at the landscape level. Our study provides with new evidence that can improve the effectiveness of strategies to mitigate biodiversity loss due to amphibian chytridiomycosis.

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Most of the Dominant Members of Amphibian Skin Bacterial Communities Can Be Readily Cultured

Applied and Environmental Microbiology ◽

10.1128/aem.01486-15 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 81 (19) ◽

pp. 6589-6600 ◽

Cited By ~ 25

Author(s):

Jenifer B. Walke ◽

Matthew H. Becker ◽

Myra C. Hughey ◽

Meredith C. Swartwout ◽

Roderick V. Jensen ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Bacterial Community ◽

Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis ◽

Amplicon Sequencing ◽

Reference Database ◽

Rrna Gene ◽

Amphibian Skin ◽

Amphibian Species ◽

Content Type ◽

Average Percentage ◽

Culture Independent

ABSTRACTCurrently, it is estimated that only 0.001% to 15% of bacteria in any given system can be cultured by use of commonly used techniques and media, yet culturing is critically important for investigations of bacterial function. Despite this situation, few studies have attempted to link culture-dependent and culture-independent data for a single system to better understand which members of the microbial community are readily cultured. In amphibians, some cutaneous bacterial symbionts can inhibit establishment and growth of the fungal pathogenBatrachochytrium dendrobatidis, and thus there is great interest in using these symbionts as probiotics for the conservation of amphibians threatened byB. dendrobatidis. The present study examined the portion of the culture-independent bacterial community (based on Illumina amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene) that was cultured with R2A low-nutrient agar and whether the cultured bacteria represented rare or dominant members of the community in the following four amphibian species: bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), eastern newts (Notophthalmus viridescens), spring peepers (Pseudacris crucifer), and American toads (Anaxyrus americanus). To determine which percentage of the community was cultured, we clustered Illumina sequences at 97% similarity, using the culture sequences as a reference database. For each amphibian species, we cultured, on average, 0.59% to 1.12% of each individual's bacterial community. However, the average percentage of bacteria that were culturable for each amphibian species was higher, with averages ranging from 2.81% to 7.47%. Furthermore, most of the dominant operational taxonomic units (OTUs), families, and phyla were represented in our cultures. These results open up new research avenues for understanding the functional roles of these dominant bacteria in host health.

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Epidermal galactose spurs chytrid virulence and predicts amphibian colonization

Nature Communications ◽

10.1038/s41467-021-26127-9 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Yu Wang ◽

Elin Verbrugghe ◽

Leander Meuris ◽

Koen Chiers ◽

Moira Kelly ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Disease Ecology ◽

Fungal Pathogens ◽

Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis ◽

Host Susceptibility ◽

Fungal Colonization ◽

Amphibian Skin ◽

Glycosylation Pattern ◽

Amphibian Species ◽

Juvenile Mortality ◽

Galactose Content

AbstractThe chytrid fungal pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans cause the skin disease chytridiomycosis in amphibians, which is driving a substantial proportion of an entire vertebrate class to extinction. Mitigation of its impact is largely unsuccessful and requires a thorough understanding of the mechanisms underpinning the disease ecology. By identifying skin factors that mediate key events during the early interaction with B. salamandrivorans zoospores, we discovered a marker for host colonization. Amphibian skin associated beta-galactose mediated fungal chemotaxis and adhesion to the skin and initiated a virulent fungal response. Fungal colonization correlated with the skin glycosylation pattern, with cutaneous galactose content effectively predicting variation in host susceptibility to fungal colonization between amphibian species. Ontogenetic galactose patterns correlated with low level and asymptomatic infections in salamander larvae that were carried over through metamorphosis, resulting in juvenile mortality. Pronounced variation of galactose content within some, but not all species, may promote the selection for more colonization resistant host lineages, opening new avenues for disease mitigation.

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Panzootic chytrid fungus exploits diverse amphibian host environments through plastic infection strategies

10.1101/2021.11.29.470466 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

María Torres-Sánchez ◽

Jennifer Villate ◽

Sarah McGrath-Blaser ◽

Ana V Longo

Keyword(s):

Gene Expression ◽

Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis ◽

Gene Duplications ◽

Amphibian Skin ◽

Amphibian Species ◽

Pathogenic Genes ◽

Host Pathogen ◽

Single Host ◽

History Of ◽

Phylogenetic Framework

While many pathogens are limited to a single host, others can jump from host to host, which likely contributes to the emergence of infectious diseases. Despite this threat to biodiversity, traits associated with overcoming eco-evolutionary barriers to achieve host niche expansions are not well understood. Here, we examined the case of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a multi-host pathogen that infects the skin of hundreds of amphibian species worldwide. To uncover functional machinery driving multi-host invasion, we analyzed Bd transcriptomic landscapes across 14 amphibian hosts and inferred the origin and evolutionary history of pathogenic genes under a phylogenetic framework comprising 12 other early-divergent zoosporic fungi. Our results not only revealed a conserved basal genetic machinery, but also highlighted the ability of Bd to display plastic infection strategies when challenged under suboptimal host environments. We found that genes related to amphibian skin exploitation have arisen mainly via gene duplications. We argue that plastic gene expression can drive variation in Bd lifecycles with different mode and tempo of development. Our findings support the idea that host skin environments exert contrasting selective pressures, such that gene expression plasticity constitutes one of the evolutionary keys leading to the success of this panzootic multi-host pathogen.

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The Effect of Aquatic and Terrestrial Environmental Factors on the Interaction Between Grand Teton Boreal Toads and a Lethal Fungal Pathogen

The UW National Parks Service Research Station Annual Reports ◽

10.13001/uwnpsrc.2008.3723 ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 31 ◽

pp. 125-131

Author(s):

Peter Murphy ◽

Sophie St-Hilaire ◽

Charles Peterson

Keyword(s):

Fungal Pathogen ◽

Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis ◽

Chytrid Fungus ◽

Population Declines ◽

Amphibian Skin ◽

Amphibian Species ◽

American Bullfrog ◽

The North ◽

S 100 ◽

Boreal Toads

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), the chytrid fungus which infects keratinized amphibian skin and causes the lethal disease chytridiomycosis, has been linked to population declines and extinctions worldwide (Lips et al. 2006). Amphibians infected with Bd may suffer a variety of outcomes. Individuals of some species have been killed by :S 100 Bd zoospores, while other species, such as the North American bullfrog Rana catesbiana, are highly resistant (Daszak et al. 2004). Within an amphibian species, populations may also respond differently to Bd, with some declining et al. remaining stable (Kriger and Hero 2006). Divergent outcomes among species and populations with respect to Bd may arise from at least three factors, or their interaction.

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Chaperonin as the normal controls and pathological anti-stress response in the human reproductive system

HEALTH OF WOMAN ◽

10.15574/hw.2016.111.126 ◽

2016 ◽

pp. 126-129

Author(s):

M. Makarenko ◽

◽

D. Hovsyeyev ◽

L. Sydoryk ◽

◽

...

Keyword(s):

Reproductive System ◽

Stress Proteins ◽

Physiological Stress ◽

Protein Complexes ◽

Reproductive Function ◽

Intercellular Signaling ◽

Toll Like Receptors ◽

Wide Range ◽

Protein Functions ◽

And Function

Different kinds of physiological stress cause mass changes in the cells, including the changes in the structure and function of the protein complexes and in separate molecules. The protein functions is determined by its folding (the spatial conclusion), which depends on the functioning of proteins of thermal shock- molecular chaperons (HSPs) or depends on the stress proteins, that are high-conservative; specialized proteins that are responsible for the correct proteinaceous folding. The family of the molecular chaperones/ chaperonins/ Hsp60 has a special place due to the its unique properties of activating the signaling cascades through the system of Toll-like receptors; it also stimulates the cells to produce anti- inflammatory cytokines, defensins, molecules of cell adhesion and the molecules of MHC; it functions as the intercellular signaling molecule. The pathological role of Hsp60 is established in a wide range of illnesses, from diabetes to atherosclerosis, where Hsp60 takes part in the regulation of both apoptosis and the autoimmune processes. The presence of the HSPs was found in different tissues that are related to the reproductive system. Key words: molecular chaperons (HSPs), Toll-like receptors, reproductive function, natural auto antibody.

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Possession and Repetition

Postscripts The Journal of Sacred Texts and Contemporary Worlds ◽

10.1558/post.v6i1-3.243 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 6 (1-3) ◽

pp. 243-259 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Yohan Yoo

Keyword(s):

First Century ◽

Daily Lives ◽

Modern Times ◽

Sacred Texts ◽

New Methods ◽

Wide Range ◽

Lay Buddhists ◽

Iconic Status ◽

And Function ◽

To Receive

This article demonstrates the need for the iconic status and function of Buddhist scripture to receive more attention by illuminating how lay Korean Buddhists try to appropriate the power of sutras. The oral and aural aspects of scripture, explained by Wilfred Cantwell Smith, provide only a limited understanding of the characteristics of scripture. It should be noted that, before modern times, most lay people, not only in Buddhist cultures but also in Christian and other traditions, neither had the chance to recite scriptures nor to listen to their recitations regularly. Several clear examples demonstrate contemporary Korean Buddhists’ acceptance of the iconic status of sutras and their attempt to appropriate the power and status of those sacred texts. In contemporary Korea, lay Buddhists try to claim the power of scriptures in their daily lives by repeating and possessing them. Twenty-first century lay believers who cannot read or recite in a traditional style have found new methods of repetition, such as internet programs for copying sacred texts and for playing recordings of their recitations. In addition, many Korean Buddhists consider the act of having sutras in one’s possession to be an effective way of accessing the sacred status and power of these texts. Hence, various ways of possessing them have been developed in a wide range of products, from fancy gilded sutras to sneakers embroidered with mantras.

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The Art of Love Poetry

10.1093/oso/9780198752974.001.0001 ◽

2018 ◽

Author(s):

Erik Gray

Keyword(s):

Popular Culture ◽

Cultural History ◽

Literary Tradition ◽

Love Poetry ◽

Erotic Love ◽

Wide Range ◽

History Of ◽

And Function ◽

Meaning And Function ◽

Comprehensive History

Love begets poetry; poetry begets love. These two propositions have seemed evident to thinkers and poets across the Western literary tradition. Plato writes that “anyone that love touches instantly becomes a poet.” And even today, when poetry has largely disappeared from the mainstream of popular culture, it retains its romantic associations. But why should this be so—what are the connections between poetry and erotic love that lead us to associate them so strongly with one another? An examination of different theories of both love and poetry across the centuries reveals that the connection between them is not merely an accident of cultural history—the result of our having grown up hearing, or hearing about, love poetry—but something more intrinsic. Even as definitions of them have changed, the two phenomena have consistently been described in parallel terms. Love is characterized by paradox. Above all, it is both necessarily public, because interpersonal, and intensely private; hence it both requires expression and resists it. In poetry, especially lyric poetry, which features its own characteristic paradoxes and silences, love finds a natural outlet. This study considers both the theories and the love poems themselves, bringing together a wide range of examples from different eras in order to examine the major structures that love and poetry share. It does not aim to be a comprehensive history of Western love poetry, but an investigation into the meaning and function of recurrent tropes, forms, and images employed by poets to express and describe erotic love.

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