scholarly journals I. Considerations on the abrupt change at boiling or conden­ sing in reference to the continuity of the fluid state of matter

1872 ◽  
Vol 20 (130-138) ◽  
pp. 1-8 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Liquid State ◽  
Abrupt Change ◽  
Plane Surface ◽  
Ordinary Language ◽  
The Other ◽  
Gaseous State ◽  
Temperature And Pressure ◽  
The One ◽  
Infinite Variety ◽  
Liquid States

When we find a substance capable of existing in two fluid states different in density and other properties while the temperature and pressure are the same in both, and when we find also that an introduction or abstraction of heat without change of temperature or of pressure will effect the change from the one state to the other, and also find that the change either way is perfectly reversible , we speak of the one state as being an ordinary gaseous, and the other as being an ordinary, liquid state of the same matter; and the ordinary transition from the one to the other we would designate by the terms boiling or condensing, or occasionally by other terms nearly equivalent, such as evaporation, gasification, liquefaction from the gaseous state, &c. Cases of gasification from liquids or of condensation from gases, when any chemical alteration accompanies the abrupt change of density, are not among the subjects proposed to be brought under consi­deration in the present paper. In such cases I presume there would be no perfect reversibility in the process; and if so, this would of itself be a criterion sufficing to separate them from the proper cases of boiling or condensing at present intended to be considered. If, now, the fluid sub­stance in the rarer of the two states (that is, in what is commonly called the gaseous state) be still further rarefied, by increase of temperature or diminution of pressure, or be changed considerably in other ways by alterations of temperature and pressure jointly, without its receiving any abrupt collapse in volume, it will still, in ordinary language and ordinary mode of thought, be regarded as being in a gaseous state. Remarks of quite a corresponding kind may be made in describing various conditions of the fluid (as to temperature, pressure, and volume), which would in ordinary language be regarded as belonging to the liquid state. Dr. Andrews (Phil. Trans. 1869, p. 575) has shown that the ordinary gaseous and ordinary liquid states are only widely separated forms of the same condition of matter, and may be made to pass into one another by a course of continuous physical changes presenting nowhere any interruption or breach of continuity. If we denote geometrically all possible points of pressure and temperature jointly, by points spread continuously in a plane Surface, each point in the plane being referred to two axes of rectangular coordinates, so that one of its ordinates shall represent the temperature and the other the pressure denoted by that point, and if we mark all the successive boiling- or condensing-points of temperature and pressure as a continuous line on this plane, this line, which may be called the boiling­ line , will be a separating boundary between the regions of the plane cor­responding to the ordinary liquid state and those corresponding to the ordinary gaseous state. But, by consideration of Dr. Andrews’s experimental results, we may see that this separating boundary comes to an end at a point of pressure and temperature which, in conformity with his lan­guage, may be called the critical point of pressure and temperature jointly; and we may see that, from any ordinary liquid state to any ordinary gaseous state, the transition may be effected gradually by an infinite variety of courses passing round outside the extreme end of the boiling-line.

scholarly journals II. On evaporation and dissociation. —Part I

1886 ◽  
Vol 177 ◽  
pp. 71-122 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Free Path ◽  
Liquid State ◽  
Chemical Compounds ◽  
The Other ◽  
Complex Molecules ◽  
Gaseous State ◽  
Form Complex ◽  
Mutual Attraction ◽  
Rapid Motion ◽  
The Difference

1. The phenomena exhibited by gases when exposed to varying temperatures and pressures have been shown by many eminent observers to be explicable by an extension to molecules of the laws of motion of matter which are known to be true in the case of large bodies. Such molecules of gas are supposed to be in a state of very rapid motion, the free path of each molecule bearing a very large ratio to the diameter of the molecule. As a liquid is formed by the condensation of a gas, it is clear that its molecules are in closer proximity to each other, and that the average free path of each molecule in the liquid state cannot be nearly so great as in the gaseous state. It was pointed out by Naumann (Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm., 1870, 155, 325; see also Ramsay, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1880, April 22 and December 16) that it is conceivable that an explanation of the closer proximity of molecules in a liquid than in a gas may be that two or more gaseous molecules have united to form complex molecular groups, analogous to those complex molecules which are known as chemical compounds, in which two or more elements exist in combination. On the other hand, it is held by some that the difference between gas and liquid is due solely to the greater proximity of the molecules in the liquid state, by reason of which they come within the sphere of mutual attraction, but do not necessarily coalesce to form groups of molecules analogous to the group of atoms in the molecule of a compound.

scholarly journals Atoms in Gaseous and Solid States and their Energy and Force Relationships under Transitional Behaviors

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mubarak Ali
Keyword(s):  
Potential Energy ◽  
Helium Atom ◽  
Liquid State ◽  
Hydrogen Atoms ◽  
Atomic Lattice ◽  
Gaseous State ◽  
Solid States ◽  
The North ◽  
Protons And Neutrons ◽  
Liquid States

Abstract By recalling the conventional insights of different atomic states, it is possible to discover new insights, which can cope the existing challenges. In fact, atoms consist of electrons and energy knot nets. In atoms of all elements, suitably intercrossed overt photons form or construct energy knots. In growing atoms of gaseous and solid states, schemes of intercrossing overt photons become different. To construct atomic lattice in any element, overt photons in suitable length and number intercross by keeping the centers of their lengths at a common point. A scheme of intercrossing overt photons frames energy knots simultaneously clamping to positioned electrons. Atoms are differentiated on the basis of their different numbers of energy knots and electrons. A number of unfilled states in an atom represents a valency. Excluding hydrogen, atoms possess the same valence number as specified for them. However, two more electrons with two already prescribed ones for the first shell form the zeroth ring of the atom. In the hydrogen atom, only two electrons are available for two energy knots; two overt photons of the least measured lengths intercross to form the shape like digit eight. In this way, four electrons are clamped by four energy knots to form helium atom. Thus, a helium atom is related to a zeroth ring in all higher order atoms. In order to validate these aforementioned statements, the concept of studying protons and neutrons is no longer significant. As far as the atoms of gaseous state are concerned, electrons possess the minimum required potential energy. In this way, electrons of gaseous atoms remain above the middle of clamped energy knots in more than half the length, and they keep on experiencing the maximum required levitational force along the north pole. In atoms of solid state, electrons possess the maximum required potential energy. In this way, electrons of solid atoms remain below the middle of clamped energy knots in more than half the length, and they keep on experiencing the maximum required gravitational force along the south pole. Each transition state of the atom is under the established relation of energy and force. Under transitional energy of an atom, electrons undertake infinitesimal displacements within the clamped energy knots, where orientational force keeps on engaging them to introduce the recovery, neutral, re-crystallization and liquid states. Electrons left to the center of atom orientate from north to east clockwise and electrons right to the centre of atom orientate from north to west anti-clockwise during the conversion of gaseous atom to liquid state. On the other hand, electrons left to the center of atom orientate from south to east anti-clockwise and electrons right to the center of atom orientate from south to west clockwise during the conversion of solid atom to liquid state. These fundamental revolutions shed new light on the development of sustainable science and engineering.

XVIII. On an instrument for correcting gaseous volume

1883 ◽  
Vol 34 (220-223) ◽  
pp. 166-167 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
The Other ◽  
Small Glass ◽  
Different Temperatures ◽  
Glass Tubes ◽  
Temperature And Pressure ◽  
The One ◽  
Square Box ◽  
Small Cylinder

This instrument has been devised in order to facilitate the correction of the observed volume of a mass of gas, measured at any common temperature and pressure, to the volume the gas would occupy if measured under standard conditions. A reading of the instrument furnishes a number which serves for the making of this correction, and stands instead of readings of the barometer and of the thermometer, and a reference to a table of the tension of aqueous vapour at different temperatures. The instrument consists of two small glass tubes standing side by side; the one is open above, having been drawn out and bent down-wards to exclude dust; the other tube terminates in a bulb whose Capacity is about four and a half times that of the tube. The two tubes are connected below by means of caoutchouc tubing with a small cylinder containing mercury, closed above by a leather cap, which can be pressed down by a button attached to a screw moving m a fixed socket W hen the screw and button are lowered the mercury rises in both tubes. The ends of the tubes and the reservoir of mercury are contained in a square box, upon the bottom of which they rest and whose top carries the socket in which the screw turns. At the back of the box is a wooden upright which supports the tubes The tube which terminates in a bulb is graduated and figured so as to m ark the capacity of the bulb and tube, down to each line of graduation.

Ordinary language philosophy, school of

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Geoffrey Warnock
Keyword(s):  
Philosophy Of Language ◽  
Ordinary Language ◽  
The Other ◽  
Ordinary Language Philosophy ◽  
Language Philosophy ◽  
Everyday Language ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The One ◽  
Modern Work ◽  
Philosophical Doctrine

The label ‘ordinary language philosophy’ was more often used by the enemies than by the alleged practitioners of what it was intended to designate. It was supposed to identify a certain kind of philosophy that flourished, mainly in Britain and therein mainly in Oxford, for twenty years or so, roughly after 1945. Its enemies found it convenient to group the objects of their hostility under a single name, while the practitioners thus aimed at were more conscious of divergences among themselves, and of the actual paucity of shared philosophical doctrine; they might have admitted to being a ‘group’ perhaps, but scarcely a ‘school’. The sharp hostility which this group aroused was of two quite different sorts. On the one hand, among certain (usually older) philosophers and more commonly among the serious-minded public, it was labelled as philistine, subversive, parochial and even deliberately trivial; on the other hand, some philosophers (for instance, Russell, Popper and Ayer), while ready enough to concede the importance in philosophy of language, saw a concern with ordinary language in particular as a silly aberration, or even as a perversion and betrayal of modern work in the subject. How, then, did ‘ordinary language’ come in? It was partly a matter of style. Those taken to belong to the school were consciously hostile to the lofty, loose rhetoric of old-fashioned idealism; also to the ‘deep’ paradoxes and mystery-mongering of their continental contemporaries; but also to any kind of academic jargon and neologism, to technical terms and aspirations to ‘scientific’ professionalism. They preferred to use, not necessarily without wit or elegance, ordinary language. (Here G.E. Moore was an important predecessor.) Besides style, however, there were also relevant doctrines, though less generally shared. Wittgenstein, perhaps the most revered philosopher of the period, went so far as to suggest that philosophical problems in general actually consisted in, or arose from, distortions and misunderstandings of ordinary language, a ‘clear view’ of which would accomplish their dissolution; many agreed that there was some truth in this, though probably not the whole truth. Then it was widely held that ordinary language was inevitably fundamental to all our intellectual endeavours– it must be what one starts from, supplying the familiar background and terms in which technical sophistications have to be introduced and understood; it was therefore not to be neglected or carelessly handled. Again it was urged, notably by J.L. Austin, that our inherited everyday language is, at least in many areas, a long-evolved, complex and subtle instrument, careful scrutiny of which could be expected to be at least a helpful beginning in the pursuit of philosophical clarity. It was probably this modest claim– overstated and even caricatured by its detractors– which was most frequently supposed to be the credo of ordinary language philosophers. It was important that Russell – like, indeed, Wittgenstein when composing his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1922) – firmly believed, on the contrary, that ordinary language was the mere primitive, confused and confusing surface beneath which theorists were to seek the proper forms of both language and logic.

scholarly journals Subtle thought disturbance in schizophrenia

1995 ◽  
Vol 19 (11) ◽  
pp. 697-697
Author(s):  
Henry R. Rollin
Keyword(s):  
Thought Disorder ◽  
The Other ◽  
Thought Disturbance ◽  
The One ◽  
Infinite Variety

Thought disorder, perhaps the most telling symptom of schizophrenia, presents itself in an infinite variety of ways. This ranges from unintelligible gibberish on the one hand to far more subtle disturbances on the other, disturbances which in other circumstances might be construed as examples of donnish games with twisted logic. Here is one that sticks in my memory.

The magnetic field Influence on the absorption threshold of VOâ‚‚

2016 ◽  
pp. 3322-3332
Author(s):  
Abderrahim Ben Chaib
Keyword(s):  
Magnetic Field ◽  
Vanadium Dioxide ◽  
Abrupt Change ◽  
The Other ◽  
Electron Hole ◽  
Quasi Particle ◽  
Metal State ◽  
The One ◽  
The Magnetic Field ◽  
Field Influence

The vanadium dioxide VO₂ is a material described as being intelligent because it can transit [1,2] from a reversible way of the semiconductor state to the metal state at a temperature θt = 68°C. When we are at a temperature θt < 68°C, this material is in the semiconductor state with a gap [3,4] approximately 0.7 ev. When θt > 68°C, the vanadium dioxide becomes metal [14], there is an abrupt change of its structure and its optical properties [14,15] and electronic. We are interested in this study in the VO₂ semiconductor state [15] and, especially, in widening its gap by the application of a magnetic field B = Bz . By taking into account the spin of the electron of the band of conduction after having neglected the term of Coulomb interaction, we solved the Schrödinger’s equation in an exact way. Obtaining the levels of Landau [5,6,7] enables us to conclude the variation of the gap of ΔEg = 1 2 ℏωc, where ωc is the frequency cyclotron ωc = eB μ, with e: theelectron charge; μ: the reduced mass of the quasi particle (electron-hole); ħ: the Planck's constant reduced, and B is the intensity of the applied magnetic field. We will simulate by Maple this variation according to B for fixed μ on the one hand, and ΔEg according to μ for fixed B on the other hand.

scholarly journals I. A quantitative investigation of certain relations between the gaseous, the liquid, and the solid states of water-substance

1874 ◽  
Vol 22 (148-155) ◽  
pp. 27-36 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Triple Point ◽  
Plane Surface ◽  
The Other ◽  
British Association ◽  
Quantitative Investigation ◽  
Solid States ◽  
Rectangular Coordinates ◽  
Temperature And Pressure ◽  
Further Development ◽  
Water Substance

In two communications made by me to the British Association at its Meetings at Edinburgh in 1871, and at Brighton in 1872, and printed as abstracts in the Transactions of the Sections for those years, considerations were adduced on relations between the gaseous, the liquid, and the solid states of matter. The new subject of the present paper constitutes a further development of some of those previous considerations; and a brief sketch of these is necessary here as an introduction for rendering intelligible what is to follow. Taking into consideration any substance which we can have in the three states, gaseous, liquid, and solid, we may observe that, when any two of these states are present in contact together, the pressure and temperature are dependent each on the other, so that when one is given the other is fixed. Then, if we denote geometrically all possible points of temperature and pressure jointly by points spread continuously in a plane surface, each point in the plane being referred to two axes of rectangular coordinates, so that one of its ordinates shall represent the temperature and thé other the pressure denoted by that point, we may notice that there will be three curves—one expressing the relation between temperature and pressure for gas with liquid, another expressing that for gas with solid, and another expressing that for liquid with solid. These three curves, it appears, must all meet or cross each other in one point of pressure and temperature jointly, which may be called the triple point.

scholarly journals The scholar's lute among the Chinese

1843 ◽  
Vol 4 ◽  
pp. 297-298 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Short Distance ◽  
Plane Surface ◽  
The Body ◽  
The Other ◽  
Stringed Instrument ◽  
The One ◽  
Different Diameters

The Kin, which is the stringed instrument here described, was the one played upon by Confucius and the sages of antiquity, and is therefore held sacred by men of letters, lc is made of the Woo-tung, or Dryandria cordifolia . It is convex above and plane below, and is wider at one end than at the other; it has two quadrangular apertures in the plane surface, which open into as many hollows within the body of the instrument: and it is furnished with seven silken strings of different diameters, which pass over the smaller end, and are distributed between two immovable pegs below. A bridge within a short distance of the wider extremity gives these strings the necessary elevation and a passage to the under surface, where, by means of a row of pegs, they are tightened or relaxed at pleasure. The length of the sounding-board is divided by thirteen studs of nacre, or mother-of-pearl, as a guide for the performer; and they are placed so that the length of each string is bisected, trisected, &c., that is, divided into aliquot parts as far as the eighth subdivision, with the omission of the seventh, the number of sections being represented by the arithmetical series 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 0, 8. Thus the intervals, or magnitudes of the different tones sounded by this instrument, do not accord with those produced on our violin, but agree more with the old Scotch music. The study of this instrument, and the art of playing upon it, are rendered extremely difficult by the complexity of the Chinese notation of written music, which leads to frequent omissions and blunders. Thus every air which a Chinese plays has cost him the labour of many months to learn; and so tiresome is this acquisition, that the author has heard some extemporize very prettily without being able to play a single air. Their performance, however, is very graceful; and though the melody be simple, every scope is given to variety by the mode of touching the strings. The author enters into an examination of the musical theory of the sounds produced by this instrument.

scholarly journals VII. On the viscosity of gases at high exhaustions

1881 ◽  
Vol 172 ◽  
pp. 387-446 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Internal Friction ◽  
Plane Surface ◽  
Tangential Force ◽  
The Other ◽  
British Association ◽  
Mean Velocity ◽  
Total Action ◽  
The Mean ◽  
The One

635. By the viscosity or internal friction of a gas, is meant the resistance it offers to the gliding of one portion over another. In a paper read before the British Association in 1859, Maxwell† gives the following explanation of the internal friction of gases:— “Particles having the mean velocity of translation belonging to one layer of the gas, pass out of it into another layer having a different velocity of translation, and by striking against the particles of the second layer exert upon it a tangential force which constitutes the internal friction of the gas. The whole friction between two portions of gas separated by a plane surface, depends upon the total action between all the layers on the one side of that surface upon all the layers on the other side.”

scholarly journals Atoms in Gaseous and Solid States and their Energy and Force Relationships under Transitional Behaviors

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mubarak Ali
Keyword(s):  
Potential Energy ◽  
Helium Atom ◽  
Liquid State ◽  
Hydrogen Atoms ◽  
Atomic Lattice ◽  
Gaseous State ◽  
Solid States ◽  
The North ◽  
Protons And Neutrons ◽  
Liquid States

Abstract Recalling the conventional insights of different atomic states, it is possible to discover new insights, which can cope with the existing challenges. Atoms, in fact, form from the electrons and energy knot nets. Suitably intercrossed overt photons construct energy knots in atoms of all elements. In growing atoms of gaseous and solid states, schemes of intercrossing overt photons become different. To construct atomic lattice in any element, overt photons in suitable length and number intercross by keeping the centers of their lengths at a common point. A scheme of intercrossing overt photons frames energy knots simultaneously clamping to positioned electrons. Atoms are differentiated on the basis of their different numbers of energy knots and electrons. A number of unfilled states in an atom represents a valency. Excluding hydrogen, atoms possess the same valency as specified for them. However, two more electrons with two already prescribed ones for the first shell form the zeroth ring of atom. In the hydrogen atom, only two electrons are occupied by two energy knots; two overt photons of the least measured lengths intercross to form the shape like digit eight. In this way, four electrons remain occupied by four energy knots to form helium atom. Thus, a helium atom is related to a zeroth ring in all higher order atoms. In order to validate these aforementioned statements, the concept of studying protons and neutrons is no longer significant. As far as the atoms of gaseous state are concerned, electrons possess minimum required potential energy. In this way, electrons of gaseous atoms remain above the middle of occupied energy knots in more than half the length, and they keep on experiencing maximum required levitational force along the north pole. In atoms of solid state, electrons possess maximum required potential energy. In this way, electrons of solid atoms remain below the middle of occupied energy knots in more than half the length, and they keep on experiencing maximum required gravitational force along the south pole. Each transition state of the atom is under the established relation of energy and force. Under transitional energy of an atom, electrons deal with infinitesimal displacements within their occupied energy knots, where the orientational force keeps on engaging them to introduce the recovery, neutral, re-crystallization and liquid states. Electrons left to the center of atom orientate from north to east clockwise, and electrons right to the centre of atom orientate from north to west anti-clockwise during the conversion of gaseous atom to liquid state. On the other hand, electrons left to the center of atom orientate from south to east anti-clockwise, and electrons right to the center of atom orientate from south to west clockwise during the conversion of solid atom to liquid state. These fundamental revolutions shed new light on the development of sustainable science and engineering.

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