Neo-Pyrrhonism, Empiricism, and Scientific Activity

Pyrrhonism involves the inability to defend claims about the unobservable world, or, more generally, about what is really going on beyond the phenomena (SEXTUS EMPIRICUS, 1994). As a result, the Pyrrhonist is not engaged in developing a philosophical doctrine, at least in the sense of defending a view about the underlying features of reality. The issue then arises as to whether the Pyrrhonist also has something positive to say about our knowledge of the world, while still keeping Pyrrhonism. In this paper, I develop a positive neo-Pyrrhonist attitude, indicating that we can use this attitude to make sense of important aspects of science and empirical knowledge. To do that, I explore the connection between this revived form of Pyrrhonism and contemporary versions of empiricism, in particular constructive empiricism (VAN FRAASSEN, 1980, 1989, 2002, 2008). Although constructive empiricism is not a form of skepticism, there are important elements in common between constructive empiricism and Pyrrhonism. The resulting form of Pyrrhonism suggests that there is something right about the original stance articulated by Sextus Empiricus, and that suitably formulated it provides an insightful approach to think about empirical knowledge (PORCHAT PEREIRA, 2006, for the original inspiration behind neoPyrrhonism).

Hermeneutics of Aristotle and Hermeneutics of Sophists in Terms of Dialogue Philosophy. Part II. From Sophists to Modernity

The article considers the logical and philosophical doctrine of sophists, which, according to some modern researchers, was more philosophical than their ancient critics recognized. A comparison of the provisions of Aristotle's hermeneutics with preserved fragments of Protagoras and Gorgias shows that the doctrine of sophists was a kind of holistic philosophy, which anticipated the philosophy of dialogue of the XX century. Despite the fact that the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle tried to overcome the relativism and anti-ontologism of the doctrine of sophists, some elements of its dialogism were preserved in subsequent philosophy in dialectics and rhetoric. The first thing you should pay attention to is the difference between the dialogical form of the presentation of philosophy in Plato and dialogue as the fundamental basis of thinking that we find among sophists. The dialogism preserved in the dialectic of Plato and the rhetoric of Aristotle is more a technical method of convincing the interlocutor than a hermeneutical basis, which it is in the philosophy of dialogue and in the method of Socratic discussion. The linguistic turn that occurred in the philosophy of the 20th century includes not only an increased interest in language and accuracy of expression. No less important is the new formulation of the question of the nature of the language. Is language a tool for the formulation of thought as Aristotle believed and followed by representatives of modern analytical philosophy, or does it have its own fundamental status, as representatives of the philosophy of dialogue believe? In this context, it is very important for the philosophy of dialogue to find in the thinking of the pre-Socratics those predecessors who already charted the paths for modern thought two and a half thousand years ago. The second part of the article discusses the forms of the dialogic thinking that have survived in philosophy after the sophists and the role of the sophists' hermeneutics in the formation of modern philosophy of dialogue.

BUDDHISM: AN OVERVIEW OF ITS PHILOSOPHY AND DEVELOPMENT IN RUSSIA

It is a positivist philosophy that assumed a religious character, and it appeared in India after the Hindu Brahmin religion in the fifth century B.C. In the beginning, it was opposed to Hinduism and tended to take care of the human being. It also included a call to mysticism and harshness, and the rejection of luxury, and the call for love, tolerance, and doing good. After the death of its founder, it turned into false beliefs of a pagan nature, and its followers exaggerated its founder until he worshipped him. We conducted a literature study by reviewing various sources and using a descriptive analysis approach and a historical approach in presenting this article. It is considered an ethical system and a philosophical doctrine based on philosophical theories, and its teachings are not revelations but rather opinions and beliefs within a religious framework. Old Buddhism differs from New Buddhism in that the former is ethical, while New Buddhism is Buddha's teachings mixed with philosophical views and mental measurements about the universe and life. Buddhism has spread to all corners of the world, including Russia. Buddhism is considered one of the traditional religions in Russia, which is legally part of Russia's historical heritage. In addition to the historical monastic traditions of Buryatia, Kalmykia, and Tuva, Buddhism is now spreading throughout Russia, with some ethnic Russians converting to it. The main form of Buddhism in Russia is the Gelukpa school of Tibetan Buddhism, with other Tibetan traditions in the minority. Although Tibetan Buddhism is most often associated with Tibet, the religion spread to Mongolia, and via Mongolia, it was brought to Russia.

Kate Chopin’s prose in the context of American transcendentalism

The article deals with the typological parallels between Kate Chopin’s literary-artistic system and philosophical doctrine of transcendentalism. As well as the majority of the writers of that time Kate Chopin could not avoid the influence of the ideas determining the peculiarities of cultural atmosphere in America, Ralf Waldo Emerson’s ideas in particular. Emerson’s philosophical and aesthetic conception proclaimed individual freedom the highest value, pointed out the intuitive nature of creative work. American transcendentalism encouraged to depict even mundane life events, empowered the art with a special role in the discovery of the world. These provisions were especially close to Kate Chopin and were rather peculiarly embodied in her works. Thus, Kate Chopin depicted mundane events from American life in all their diversity. In her works art is a way to penetrate into the deepest core of existence. The cross-cutting theme of Kate Chopin’s writing was her heroines’ understanding of their own significance, the necessity of freedom and self-realisation and that coincides greatly with Emerson’s “self-reliance” doctrine. Nevertheless, transcendentalism ideas being a part of cultural code of the time combined in Kate Chopin’s works with her individual worldview and that reflected in special ironic implication of her prose.

Commemorative and Anniversary Philosophical Medals as a Visual Aid and Philosophical Source

The paper demonstrates the significance of commemorative and anniversary philosophical medals that are seen as a special visual aid for problematic issues in the history of philosophy specification. The author puts forward the thesis that such medals can clarify the perception of philosophical doctrine and the context of philosophical doctrine consideration at a particular time. So, they greatly assist as an additional historical and philosophical source, but they can hardly be helpful with the interpretation of either various aspects of a philosophical doctrine or a particular statement of a particular philosopher. The rationale for the thesis presents the analysis of four philosophical medals: the medal commemorating the foundation of the alethophile society (1740), A. Abramsonʼs medal in honor of I. Kantʼs sixtieth anniversary (1784), A. Abramsonʼs medal for the death of I. Kant (1804), A.L. Heldʼs medals in honor of the sixtieth anniversary of G.W.F. Hegel (1830). If the first three medals contribute to a better understanding of the philosophical traits of the German Enlightenment, the reasons for appealing to Horace's words “sapere aude”, Kant's peculiarity as an Enlightenmentist, philosophical meaning of the Kantian Copernican Revolution and the transformation of the perception of the “Critique of Pure Reason” in the late 18th century, expectations regarding the fourth medal has proved misplaced. It cannot clarify the Hegelian phrase about reason as a rose on the cross of modernity and reconciliation with reality. In addition, in the course of clarifying the meaning of the four aforementioned medals, the author also turns to the commemorative medal of Chr. Wolff by J. Dassier (c. 1733), the medal for the return of Chr. Wolff to Halle by J.Chr. Koch (1740) and the medal for Kantʼs death by F.W. Loos (1804).

Analysis of Oleksandr Kulchytskyi’s Anthropological Research in the Context of European Philosophy

Purpose. The paper is aimed at studying the peculiarities of the Oleksandr Kulchytskyi’s doctrine of human, taking into account the context of European philosophy and especially in comparison with the paradigm of philosophizing in the Lviv-Warsaw school. The theoretical basis of the study is determined by Kulchytskyi’s scholarly works in the field of philosophy and philosophical anthropology, as well as the latest researches that reinterpret the influence of Twardowski’s theoretico-methodological ideas on the formation of the philosophical worldview of the Ukrainian thinker. Originality. Based on the appeal to primary sources, Kulchytskyi’s philosophical doctrine of human in the unity of its basic principles and theoretico-practical results is reconstructed. The ways of forming the key ideas of his philosophical anthropology are determined, their originality is substantiated, despite the cooperation with Twardowski’s school, as well as despite numerous discussions and researches of Western European philosophico-anthropological, existentio-ideological and socio-psychological issues. Conclusions. It is found out how the philosophical worldview of Oleksandr Kulchytskyi was formed and how he gradually came from the research of the human psyche within the framework of anthropological structural psychology to the realization of the need to study philosophical anthropology. The personalistic features of his philosophical doctrine of human are characterized; in particular, attention is paid to the distinction between the concepts of person and personality, determining the importance of the social factor for the formation of human worldview, didactic aims of anthropological studies. It is shown how in Kulchytskyi’s philosophical anthropology the analysis of the existentio-worldview dimension of human existence, manifested in different spiritual situations and socio-cultural conditions that influence the specifics of thinking and the nature of the personality mentality, acquires special importance. The originality of Kulchytskyi’s arguments about human in the context of both Ukrainian philosophy and in general European philosophical thought is stated.

Ancient Roots of Contemporary Cosmopolitanism

Analyzing ancient cosmopolitanism we can identify the various groups of interests behind contemporary globalization models. There are three directions in contemporary cosmopolitanism: egalitarian, libertarian, and mondialistic. Each of them is associated with a certain ancient school – the Cynics, Cyrenaics, Stoics. Each of these three lines has a definite social basis both in Antiquity and in the Age of Globalization. Cosmopolitanism is considered as a universal in time and space philosophical doctrine and ideological principia. Looking at cosmopolitanism through global-historical perspective, we can see its unchanged, permanent essence, which does not depend on concrete conditions. This article looks at ancient cosmopolitanism as a folded (latent) programme of globalization. Using the global-historical approach and the method of historical analogues the author reveals social and philosophical roots of contemporary cosmopolitanism in Antiquity. Some parallels between Hellenistic ethics and Confucian cosmopolitanism are drawn. The directions of ancient cosmopolitanism are compared to those of present.

Сакральный характер власти в Цинской империи и его проявление во внешней политике по отношению к Джунгарскому государству и казахам

Introduction. The sacred nature of power is one of the main features of the empire. Since ancient times in the Chinese state the sacralization of power is presented in the religious-philosophical doctrine of the Emperor as the Son of Heaven who rules the Celestial Empire. This doctrine differs from the Sinocentrism conception in its understanding of the nature of power. Goals. The present paper examines foreign policy of the Qing Empire towards the Dzungar state and the Kazakhs with due regard of the manifestation of the sacred nature of power in foreign policies conducted by the Chinese government. The article also addresses the issue of the number of Oirats slaughtered by the Qing Empire. Materials. The research analyzes scientific works on the history of the Qing Empire, Chinese-Kazakh, Chinese-Oirat, Kazakh-Oirat relations, as well as published Chinese sources. Results. The paper shows that the sacral nature of power in the Qing Empire manifested itself in foreign policy as well. The rulers of the Dzungar state and Kazakh clans became nominal subjects of the Empire without coercion from the Chinese side. And this fact did not oblige them to become real subjects, tributaries. There was a ritual interaction that was beneficial for both sides. If a non-Chinese ruler became a nominal subject of Bogdykhan, the Empire showed soft power in relation to his people. Even in the case of a deliberate violation of its decrees, which happened in the episode of Sino-Kazakh relations under consideration. When the ruler stopped the established interaction and began to contradict the Emperor, the Empire sought to destroy him, like the case with Galdan Boshogtu Khan and his successors.

LIFE AS PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUE IN LEIBNIZ’S PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINE

Лейбниц - автор интересной философской концепции, в основе которой - идея предустановленной Богом гармонии мира и учение о монадах. Цель статьи - показать, как состояние науки того времени повлияло на осмысление феномена жизни, предложенное немецким философом. Leibniz is the author of interesting philosophical concept in the base of which are the idea of harmony preset by God and the doctrine of monads. The purpose of the article is to show, how the state of science of that time influenced the understanding of the phenomenon of life, proposed by the German philosopher.

BOUT GEORGE BOOLE’S CALCULUS OF LOGIC

Проводится разбор и анализ небольшой статьи Джорджа Буля, опубликованной на следующий год после выхода его знаменитой работы «Математический анализ логики». Исследуется вопрос о том, насколько ее можно рассматривать как адекватный и репрезентативный обзор его логической концепции. Также исследуются математические, экстралогические и философские основания логики Буля. Указывается, что математическим основанием его логической системы послужили его исследования в области линейных дифференциальных уравнений. Кроме того, в основании его пионерских открытий лежали произвольные философско-методологическим допущения, которые напрямую не относились к области логики и математики. Такими допущениями следует признать некоторую оригинальную психологическую теорию сознания, его философию математики, предполагающую существование универсального математического исчисления, и некоторые положения логико-философской концепции И. Канта In the present paper, the small article by George Boole, published the next year after the publication of his famous work The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, is analyzed. We discuss to what extent it can be considered as an adequate and representative overview of his logical views. The mathematical, extralogical and philosophical foundations of Boole’s logic are explored. It is pointed out that the mathematical basis of his logical system was his research in the field of linear differential equations. Moreover, his pioneering discoveries were based on arbitrary philosophical and methodological assumptions that were not directly related to the field of logic and mathematics. Some of the original psychological theory of mind, its philosophy of mathematics, which presupposes the existence of a universal mathematical calculus, and some provisions of Immanuel Kant’s logico-philosophical doctrine should be recognized as such assumptions.