scholarly journals Effects of High-Volume versus High-Load Resistance Training on Skeletal Muscle Growth and Molecular Adaptations

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher Vann ◽  
Casey Sexton ◽  
Shelby Osburn ◽  
Morgan Smith ◽  
Cody Haun ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Skeletal Muscle ◽  
Protein Synthesis ◽  
Resistance Training ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Vastus Lateralis ◽  
Peak Torque ◽  
Training Experience ◽  
Leg Extension ◽  
Sarcoplasmic Protein ◽  
Dependent Samples

Aim: We evaluated the effects of higher-load (HL) versus (lower-load) higher-volume (HV) resistance training on skeletal muscle hypertrophy, strength, and muscle-level molecular markers. Methods: Trained men (n=15, age: 23+/-3 y; training experience: 7+/-3 y) performed unilateral lower body training for 6 weeks (3x weekly), where single legs were assigned to HV and HL paradigms. Vastus lateralis (VL) biopsies were obtained prior to study initiation (PRE) as well as 3 days (POST) and 10 days following the last bout (POSTPR). Body composition and strength tests were performed at each testing session, and biochemical assays were performed on muscle tissue after study completion. Two-way within subjects repeated measures ANOVAs were performed on all dependent variables except tracer data, which was compared using dependent samples t-tests. Results: A significant (p<0.05) interaction existed for unilateral leg extension 1RM (HV<HL at POST and POSTPR). Six-week integrated sarcoplasmic protein synthesis (iSarcoPS) rates were higher in the HV versus HL leg, while no difference between legs existed for integrated myofibrillar protein synthesis rates. Main time effects existed for unilateral leg press strength (PRE<POST and POSTPR), knee extensor peak torque (PRE and POST<POSTPR), dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA)-derived upper leg lean mass (PRE<POST and POSTPR), ultrasound-derived VL thickness (PRE and POSTPR<POST), sarcoplasmic protein concentrations (POST and POSTPR<PRE), and tropomyosin and troponin protein abundances (POST and POSTPR<PRE). Conclusions: With the exception of differences in leg extensor strength and iSarcoPS between legs, our data suggest that short-term (6 weeks) HV and HL training elicit similar hypertrophic, strength, and molecular-level adaptations.

scholarly journals Effects of Peanut Protein Supplementation on Resistance Training Adaptations in Younger Adults

Nutrients ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (11) ◽  
pp. 3981
Author(s):  
Casey L. Sexton ◽  
Morgan A. Smith ◽  
Kristen S. Smith ◽  
Shelby C. Osburn ◽  
Joshua S. Godwin ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Resistance Training ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Vastus Lateralis ◽  
Protein Supplementation ◽  
Peanut Protein ◽  
Whole Body ◽  
Training Experience ◽  
Tissue Mass ◽  
Training Adaptations ◽  
Dependent Samples

Protein supplementation is a commonly employed strategy to enhance resistance training adaptations. However, little research to date has examined if peanut protein supplementation is effective in this regard. Thus, we sought to determine if peanut protein supplementation (PP; 75 total g/d of powder providing 30 g/d protein, >9.2 g/d essential amino acids, ~315 kcal/d) affected resistance training adaptations in college-aged adults. Forty-seven college-aged adults (n = 34 females, n = 13 males) with minimal prior training experience were randomly assigned to a PP group (n = 18 females, n = 5 males) or a non-supplement group (CTL; n = 16 females, n = 8 males) (ClinicalTrials.gov trial registration NCT04707963; registered 13 January 2021). Body composition and strength variables were obtained prior to the intervention (PRE). Participants then completed 10 weeks of full-body resistance training (twice weekly) and PP participants consumed their supplement daily. POST measures were obtained 72 h following the last training bout and were identical to PRE testing measures. Muscle biopsies were also obtained at PRE, 24 h following the first exercise bout, and at POST. The first two biopsy time points were used to determine myofibrillar protein synthesis (MyoPS) rates in response to a naïve training bout with or without PP, and the PRE and POST biopsies were used to determine muscle fiber adaptations in females only. Dependent variables were analyzed in males and females separately using two-way (supplement × time) repeated measures ANOVAs, unless otherwise stated. The 24-h integrated MyoPS response to the first naïve training bout was similar between PP and CTL participants (dependent samples t-test p = 0.759 for females, p = 0.912 for males). For males, the only significant supplement × time interactions were for DXA-derived fat mass (interaction p = 0.034) and knee extensor peak torque (interaction p = 0.010); these variables significantly increased in the CTL group (p < 0.05), but not the PP group. For females, no significant supplement × time interactions existed, although interactions for whole body lean tissue mass (p = 0.088) and vastus lateralis thickness (p = 0.099) approached significance and magnitude increases in these characteristics favored the PP versus CTL group. In summary, this is the second study to determine the effects of PP supplementation on resistance training adaptations. While PP supplementation did not significantly enhance training adaptations, the aforementioned trends in females, the limited n-size in males, and this being the second PP supplementation study warrant more research to determine if different PP dosing strategies are more effective than the current approach.

scholarly journals Muscle fiber hypertrophy in response to 6 weeks of high-volume resistance training in trained young men is largely attributed to sarcoplasmic hypertrophy

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Cody T. Haun ◽  
Christopher G. Vann ◽  
Shelby C. Osburn ◽  
Petey W. Mumford ◽  
Paul A. Roberson ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Skeletal Muscle ◽  
Resistance Training ◽  
Muscle Fiber ◽  
Proteomic Analysis ◽  
Citrate Synthase ◽  
Vastus Lateralis ◽  
Training Session ◽  
High Volume ◽  
Sarcoplasmic Protein ◽  
Volume Resistance

ABSTRACTCellular adaptations that occur during skeletal muscle hypertrophy in response to high-volume resistance training are not well-characterized. Therefore, we sought to explore how actin, myosin, sarcoplasmic protein, mitochondrial, and glycogen concentrations were altered in individuals that exhibited mean skeletal muscle fiber cross-sectional area (fCSA) hypertrophy following 6 weeks of high-volume resistance training. Thirty-one previously resistance-trained, college-aged males (mean ± standard deviation: 21±2 years, 5±3 training years) had vastus lateralis (VL) muscle biopsies obtained prior to training (PRE), at week 3 (W3), and at week 6 (W6). Muscle tissue from 15 subjects exhibiting PRE to W6 VL mean fCSA increases ranging from 320-1600 μm2 was further interrogated using various biochemical and histological assays as well as proteomic analysis. Seven of these individuals donated a VL biopsy after refraining from training 8 days following the last training session (W7) to determine how deloading affected biomarkers. The 15 fCSA hypertrophic responders experienced a +23% increase in mean fCSA from PRE to W6 (p<0.001) and, while muscle glycogen concentrations remained unaltered, citrate synthase activity levels decreased by 24% (p<0.001) suggesting mitochondrial volume decreased. Interestingly, both myosin and actin concentrations decreased ~30% from PRE to W6 (p<0.05). Phalloidin-actin staining similarly revealed actin concentrations per fiber decreased from PRE to W6. Proteomic analysis of the sarcoplasmic fraction from PRE to W6 indicated 40 proteins were up-regulated (p<0.05), KEGG analysis indicated that the glycolysis/gluconeogenesis pathway was upregulated (FDR sig. <0.001), and DAVID indicated that the following functionally-annotated pathways were upregulated (FDR value <0.05): a) glycolysis (8 proteins), b) acetylation (23 proteins), c) gluconeogenesis (5 proteins) and d) cytoplasm (20 proteins). At W7, sarcoplasmic protein concentrations remained higher than PRE (+66%, p<0.05), and both actin and myosin concentrations remained lower than PRE (~−50%, p<0.05). These data suggest that short-term high-volume resistance training may: a) reduce muscle fiber actin and myosin protein concentrations in spite of increasing fCSA, and b) promote sarcoplasmic expansion coincident with a coordinated up-regulation of sarcoplasmic proteins involved in glycolysis and other metabolic processes related to ATP generation. Interestingly, these effects seem to persist up to 8 days following training.

Muscle strength and hypertrophy occur independently of protein supplementation during short-term resistance training in untrained men

2015 ◽  
Vol 40 (8) ◽  
pp. 797-802 ◽  
Author(s):  
Carleigh H. Boone ◽  
Jeffrey R. Stout ◽  
Kyle S. Beyer ◽  
David H. Fukuda ◽  
Jay R. Hoffman
Keyword(s):  
Resistance Training ◽  
Muscle Strength ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Vastus Lateralis ◽  
Protein Supplementation ◽  
Muscle Size ◽  
Short Term ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Muscle Morphology ◽  
Leg Extension

Short-term resistance training has consistently demonstrated gains in muscular strength, but not hypertrophy. Post-resistance training protein ingestion is posited to augment the acute anabolic stimulus, thus potentially accelerating changes in muscle size and strength. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of 4 weeks of resistance training with protein supplementation on strength and muscle morphology changes in untrained men. Participants (mean ± SD; N = 18; age, 22.0 ± 2.5 years; body mass index, 25.1 ± 5.4 kg·m−2) were randomly assigned to a resistance training + protein group (n = 9; whey (17 g) + colostrum (3 g) + leucine (2 g)) or a resistance training + placebo group (n = 9). One-repetition maximum (1RM) strength in the leg press (LP) and leg extension (LE) exercises, maximal isometric knee extensor strength (MVIC), and muscle morphology (thickness (MT), cross-sectional area (CSA), pennation angle) of the dominant rectus femoris (RF) and vastus lateralis (VL) was assessed before and after training. Participants performed LP and LE exercises (3 × 8–10; at 80% 1RM) 3 days/week for 4 weeks. Data were analyzed using 2-way ANOVA with repeated measures. Four weeks of resistance training resulted in significant increases in LP (p < 0.001), LE (p < 0.001), MVIC (p < 0.001), RF MT (p < 0.001), RF CSA (p < 0.001), VL MT (p < 0.001), and VL CSA (p < 0.001). No between-group differences were observed. Although nutrition can significantly affect training adaptations, these results suggest that short-term resistance training augments muscle strength and size in previously untrained men with no additive benefit from postexercise protein supplementation.

scholarly journals Resistance exercise maintains skeletal muscle protein synthesis during bed rest

1997 ◽  
Vol 82 (3) ◽  
pp. 807-810 ◽  
Author(s):  
Arny A. Ferrando ◽  
Kevin D. Tipton ◽  
Marcas M. Bamman ◽  
Robert R. Wolfe
Keyword(s):  
Skeletal Muscle ◽  
Protein Synthesis ◽  
Resistance Training ◽  
Resistance Exercise ◽  
Lean Body Mass ◽  
Muscle Protein ◽  
Muscle Protein Synthesis ◽  
Bed Rest ◽  
Skeletal Muscle Protein ◽  
Skeletal Muscle Protein Synthesis

Ferrando, Arny A., Kevin D. Tipton, Marcas M. Bamman, and Robert R. Wolfe. Resistance exercise maintains skeletal muscle protein synthesis during bed rest. J. Appl. Physiol. 82(3): 807–810, 1997.—Spaceflight results in a loss of lean body mass and muscular strength. A ground-based model for microgravity, bed rest, results in a loss of lean body mass due to a decrease in muscle protein synthesis (MPS). Resistance training is suggested as a proposed countermeasure for spaceflight-induced atrophy because it is known to increase both MPS and skeletal muscle strength. We therefore hypothesized that scheduled resistance training throughout bed rest would ameliorate the decrease in MPS. Two groups of healthy volunteers were studied during 14 days of simulated microgravity. One group adhered to strict bed rest (BR; n = 5), whereas a second group engaged in leg resistance exercise every other day throughout bed rest (BREx; n = 6). MPS was determined directly by the incorporation of infusedl-[ ring-13C6]phenylalanine into vastus lateralis protein. After 14 days of bed rest, MPS in the BREx group did not change and was significantly greater than in the BR group. Thus moderate-resistance exercise can counteract the decrease in MPS during bed rest.

Muscular Endurance and Physical Capacity to Perform Work of Adolescents with Mental Retardation

1998 ◽  
Vol 7 (3) ◽  
pp. 197-205 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christine B. Stopka ◽  
Kimberly L. Zambito ◽  
David G. Suro ◽  
Kevin S. Pearson ◽  
Ronald A. Siders ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Young Adults ◽  
Resistance Training ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Physical Capacity ◽  
Adolescents And Young Adults ◽  
Muscular Endurance ◽  
Total Work ◽  
Resistance Training Program ◽  
Rf Test ◽  
Leg Extension

The purpose of this study was to evaluate gains in muscular endurance and physical capacity to perform work in 22 adolescents and young adults (ages 13-22 years) with MR. The participants were tested before and after two consecutive 3-week sessions of supervised resistance training. Specific muscle strength was evaluated using a three repetition maximum (3RM) test, and muscular endurance was assessed using a repetition to failure (RF) test at 60% of the 3RM. The chest press, leg extension, and torso arm exercises were tested. Participants trained twice per week during the training intervals. The data were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA for repeated measures. Significant increases (p ≤.05) in 3RM, RF, and total work performed during the RF test were found for the leg extension and torso arm exercises. Significant increases (p ≤.05) in RF performance and total work performed during the RF test were found in the chest press. These results demonstrate that adolescents and young adults with MR can experience significant gains in muscular strength and endurance through a supervised resistance training program.

scholarly journals Hypoenergetic diet-induced reductions in myofibrillar protein synthesis are restored with resistance training and balanced daily protein ingestion in older men

2015 ◽  
Vol 308 (9) ◽  
pp. E734-E743 ◽  
Author(s):  
Caoileann H. Murphy ◽  
Tyler A. Churchward-Venne ◽  
Cameron J. Mitchell ◽  
Nathan M. Kolar ◽  
Amira Kassis ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Protein Synthesis ◽  
Resistance Training ◽  
Older Men ◽  
Myofibrillar Protein ◽  
Energy Restriction ◽  
Protein Distribution ◽  
Protein Meal ◽  
Fed State ◽  
Sarcoplasmic Protein ◽  
Myofibrillar Protein Synthesis

Strategies to enhance weight loss with a high fat-to-lean ratio in overweight/obese older adults are important since lean loss could exacerbate sarcopenia. We examined how dietary protein distribution affected muscle protein synthesis during energy balance (EB), energy restriction (ER), and energy restriction plus resistance training (ER + RT). A 4-wk ER diet was provided to overweight/obese older men (66 ± 4 yr, 31 ± 5 kg/m2) who were randomized to either a balanced (BAL: 25% daily protein/meal × 4) or skewed (SKEW: 7:17:72:4% daily protein/meal; n = 10/group) pattern. Myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic protein fractional synthetic rates (FSR) were measured during a 13-h primed continuous infusion of l-[ ring-13C6]phenylalanine with BAL and SKEW pattern of protein intake in EB, after 2 wk ER, and after 2 wk ER + RT. Fed-state myofibrillar FSR was lower in ER than EB in both groups ( P < 0.001), but was greater in BAL than SKEW ( P = 0.014). In ER + RT, fed-state myofibrillar FSR increased above ER in both groups and in BAL was not different from EB ( P = 0.903). In SKEW myofibrillar FSR remained lower than EB ( P = 0.002) and lower than BAL ( P = 0.006). Fed-state sarcoplasmic protein FSR was reduced similarly in ER and ER + RT compared with EB ( P < 0.01) in both groups. During ER in overweight/obese older men a BAL consumption of protein stimulated the synthesis of muscle contractile proteins more effectively than traditional, SKEW distribution. Combining RT with a BAL protein distribution “rescued” the lower rates of myofibrillar protein synthesis during moderate ER.

scholarly journals Effect of increased serum 25(OH)D and calcium on structure and function of post-menopausal women: a pilot study

2020 ◽  
Vol 15 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
H. J. Hillstrom ◽  
R. Soeters ◽  
M. Miranda ◽  
S. I. Backus ◽  
J. Hafer ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Skeletal Muscle ◽  
Muscle Fatigue ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Vastus Lateralis ◽  
Structure And Function ◽  
Muscle Size ◽  
Menopausal Women ◽  
Post Menopausal ◽  
And Function

Abstract Summary The purpose was to determine if increasing serum 25(OH)D and calcium in postmenopausal women increased skeletal muscle size, strength, balance, and functional task performance while decreasing muscle fatigue. PCSA of the vastus lateralis increased and ascent of stairs time decreased after 6 months of increased serum 25(OH)D. Purpose The Institute of Medicine recommends ≥ 20 ng/ml of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] for bone and overall health. Serum 25(OH)D levels have been associated with physical performance, postural sway, and falls. The purpose of this study was to determine if increasing postmenopausal women’s serum 25(OH)D levels from 20–30 ng/ml to 40–50 ng/ml improved skeletal muscle size, strength, balance, and functional performance while decreasing skeletal muscle fatigue. Methods Twenty-six post-menopausal women (60–85 years old) with baseline serum 25(OH)D levels between 20 and 30 ng/ml were recruited. Oral over-the-counter (OTC) vitamin D3 and calcium citrate were prescribed to increase subjects’ serum 25(OH)D to levels between 40 and 50 ng/ml, serum calcium levels above 9.2 mg/dl, and PTH levels below 60 pg/ml, which were confirmed at 6 and 12 weeks. Outcome measures assessed at baseline and 6 months included muscle physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), muscle strength, postural balance, time to perform functional tasks, and muscle fatigue. Repeated measures comparisons between baseline and follow-up were performed. Results Nineteen subjects completed the study. One individual could not afford the time commitment for the repeated measures. Three individuals did not take their vitamin D as recommended. Two subjects were lost to follow-up (lack of interest), and one did not achieve targeted serum 25(OH)D. Vastus lateralis PCSA increased (p = 0.007) and ascent of stair time decreased (p = 0.042) after 6 months of increasing serum 25(OH)D levels from 20–30 ng/ml to 40–50 ng/ml. Isometric strength was unchanged. Anterior-posterior center of pressure (COP) excursion and COP path length decreased (p < 0.1) albeit non-significantly, suggesting balance may improve from increased serum 25(OH)D and calcium citrate levels. Conclusions Several measures of muscle structure and function were sensitive to elevated serum 25(OH)D and calcium levels indicating that further investigation of this phenomenon in post-menopausal women is warranted.

scholarly journals Inter- and Intra-Individual Differences in EMG and MMG during Maximal, Bilateral, Dynamic Leg Extensions

Sports ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 7 (7) ◽  
pp. 175 ◽  
Author(s):  
John Paul V. Anders ◽  
Cory M. Smith ◽  
Joshua L. Keller ◽  
Ethan C. Hill ◽  
Terry J. Housh ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Individual Differences ◽  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Polynomial Regression ◽  
Vastus Lateralis ◽  
Regression Analyses ◽  
Mean Power ◽  
Mean Power Frequency ◽  
Leg Extension ◽  
Neuromuscular Responses ◽  
Muscle Actions

The purpose of this study was to compare the composite, inter-individual, and intra-individual differences in the patterns of responses for electromyographic (EMG) and mechanomyographic (MMG) amplitude (AMP) and mean power frequency (MPF) during fatiguing, maximal, bilateral, and isokinetic leg extension muscle actions. Thirteen recreationally active men (age = 21.7 ± 2.6 years; body mass = 79.8 ± 11.5 kg; height = 174.2 ± 12.7 cm) performed maximal, bilateral leg extensions at 180°·s−1 until the torque values dropped to 50% of peak torque for two consecutive repetitions. The EMG and MMG signals from the vastus lateralis (VL) muscles of both limbs were recorded. Four 2(Leg) × 19(time) repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted to examine mean differences for EMG AMP, EMG MPF, MMG AMP, and MMG MPF between limbs, and polynomial regression analyses were performed to identify the patterns of neuromuscular responses. The results indicated no significant differences between limbs for EMG AMP (p = 0.44), EMG MPF (p = 0.33), MMG AMP (p = 0.89), or MMG MPF (p = 0.52). Polynomial regression analyses demonstrated substantial inter-individual variability. Inferences made regarding the patterns of neuromuscular responses to fatiguing and bilateral muscle actions should be considered on a subject-by-subject basis.

scholarly journals Activation of mTORC1 signaling and protein synthesis in human muscle following blood flow restriction exercise is inhibited by rapamycin

2014 ◽  
Vol 306 (10) ◽  
pp. E1198-E1204 ◽  
Author(s):  
David M. Gundermann ◽  
Dillon K. Walker ◽  
Paul T. Reidy ◽  
Michael S. Borack ◽  
Jared M. Dickinson ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Blood Flow ◽  
Protein Synthesis ◽  
Time Course ◽  
Muscle Protein ◽  
Muscle Protein Synthesis ◽  
Vastus Lateralis ◽  
Human Muscle ◽  
Leg Extension ◽  
Or Groups ◽  
Mtorc1 Signaling

Restriction of blood flow to a contracting muscle during low-intensity resistance exercise (BFR exercise) stimulates mTORC1 signaling and protein synthesis in human muscle within 3 h postexercise. However, there is a lack of mechanistic data to provide a direct link between mTORC1 activation and protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle following BFR exercise. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to determine whether mTORC1 signaling is necessary for stimulating muscle protein synthesis after BFR exercise. A secondary aim was to describe the 24-h time course response in muscle protein synthesis and breakdown following BFR exercise. Sixteen healthy young men were randomized to one of two groups. Both the control (CON) and rapamycin (RAP) groups completed BFR exercise; however, RAP was administered 16 mg of the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin 1 h prior to BFR exercise. BFR exercise consisted of four sets of leg extension exercise at 20% of 1 RM. Muscle biopsies were collected from the vastus lateralis before exercise and at 3, 6, and 24 h after BFR exercise. Mixed-muscle protein fractional synthetic rate increased by 42% at 3 h postexercise and 69% at 24 h postexercise in CON, whereas this increase was inhibited in the RAP group. Phosphorylation of mTOR (Ser2448) and S6K1 (Thr389) was also increased in CON but inhibited in RAP. Mixed-muscle protein breakdown was not significantly different across time or groups. We conclude that activation of mTORC1 signaling and protein synthesis in human muscle following BFR exercise is inhibited in the presence of rapamycin.

Leucine and insulin activate p70 S6 kinase through different pathways in human skeletal muscle

2001 ◽  
Vol 281 (3) ◽  
pp. E466-E471 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jeffrey S. Greiwe ◽  
Guim Kwon ◽  
Michael L. McDaniel ◽  
Clay F. Semenkovich
Keyword(s):  
Skeletal Muscle ◽  
Amino Acids ◽  
Protein Synthesis ◽  
Human Skeletal Muscle ◽  
Vastus Lateralis ◽  
S6 Kinase ◽  
Signaling Mechanism ◽  
Insulin Resistant ◽  
Branched Chain ◽  
Plasma Leucine

Amino acids and insulin have anabolic effects in skeletal muscle, but the mechanisms are poorly understood. To test the hypothesis that leucine and insulin stimulate translation initiation in human skeletal muscle by phosphorylating 70-kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6k), we infused healthy adults with leucine alone ( n = 6), insulin alone ( n= 6), or both leucine and insulin ( n = 6) for 2 h. p70S6k and protein kinase B (PKB) serine473phosphorylation were measured in vastus lateralis muscles. Plasma leucine increased from ∼116 to 343 μmol/l during the leucine-alone and leucine + insulin infusions. Plasma insulin increased to ∼400 pmol/l during the insulin-alone and leucine + insulin infusions and was unchanged during the leucine-alone infusion. Phosphorylation of p70S6k increased 4-fold in response to leucine alone, 8-fold in response to insulin alone, and 18-fold after the leucine + insulin infusion. Insulin-alone and leucine + insulin infusions increased PKB phosphorylation, but leucine alone had no effect. These results show that physiological concentrations of leucine and insulin activate a key mediator of protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle. They suggest that leucine stimulates protein synthesis through a nutrient signaling mechanism independent of insulin, raising the possibility that administration of branched-chain amino acids may improve protein synthesis in insulin-resistant states.

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