Hydrogeological Characterization Based on Long Term Groundwater Pressure Monitoring

2010 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shuji Daimaru ◽  
Ryuji Takeuchi ◽  
Masaki Takeda ◽  
Masayuki Ishibashi
Keyword(s):  
Phase I ◽  
Phase Ii ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Pumping Test ◽  
Phase Iii ◽  
Pressure Monitoring ◽  
Energy Agency ◽  
Hydrogeological Characteristics ◽  
Under Construction

The Mizunami Underground Research Laboratory (MIU) is now under construction by the Japan Atomic Energy Agency in the Tono area of central Japan. The MIU project is being implemented in three overlapping Phases: Surface-based Investigation (Phase I), Construction (Phase II) and Operation (Phase III). The changes of groundwater pressure due to shaft excavation can be considered analogous to a large-scale pumping test. Therefore, there is the possibility that the site scale groundwater field (several km square) can be approximated by the long-term groundwater pressure monitoring data from Phase II. Based on the monitoring observations, hydrogeological characteristics were estimated using the s-log(t/r2) plot based on the Cooper-Jacob straight line method. Results of the s-log(t/r2) plots are as follows. The groundwater flow field around the MIU construction site is separated into domains by an impermeable fault. In other words, the fault is a hydraulic barrier. Hydraulic conductivity calculated from s-log(t/r2) plots are in the order of 1.0E−7(m/s). The above results from the long term monitoring during Phase II are a verification of the hydrogeological characteristics determined in the Phase I investigations.

scholarly journals A 15-year record (2001–2015) of the ratio of nitrate to non-seasalt sulfate in precipitation over East Asia

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Syuichi Itahashi ◽  
Keiya Yumimoto ◽  
Itsushi Uno ◽  
Hiroshi Hayami ◽  
Shin-ichi Fujita ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Phase I ◽  
East Asia ◽  
Phase Ii ◽  
Precipitation Amount ◽  
Phase Iii ◽  
So2 Emissions ◽  
So2 Emission ◽  
Deposition Amount ◽  
Long Term Trend

Abstract. Acidifying species in precipitation can cause severe impacts on ecosystem. The chemical concentration of precipitation is directly related to the precipitation amount, so it is partly difficult to identify the long-term variation from precipitation concentration. The ratio of nitrate (NO3−) to non-seasalt sulfate (nss-SO42−) concentration in precipitation on an equivalent basis (hereinafter, Ratio) will be a useful index. To identify the long-term record of acidifying species in precipitation over East Asia, where is the highest emission region in the world, we have compiled the ground-based observations of the chemical concentration of precipitation over China, Korea, and Japan from 2001 to 2015 based on the Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia (EANET). The period was partly limited but other monitoring data in Japan, southern China, and northern China around Beijing were additionally utilized. The analyzed period was categorized into three phases: Phase I (2001–2005), Phase II (2006–2010), and Phase III (2011–2015). The behavior of NO3− and nss-SO42− concentration, and hence Ratio in precipitation will be related to these precursors. The anthropogenic NOx and SO2 emission amount, and NOx/SO2 emission ratio are analyzed. Further, satellite observations of NO2 and SO2 column density to capture the variation in emission was applied. We found that the long-term trend of NO3− concentration in precipitation was not related to the variation in NOx emission and the NO2 column. In comparison, the nss-SO42− concentration in precipitation over China, Korea, and Japan was partly connected to the changes in SO2 emission from China, but the trends were not significant. The long-term trend of Ratio over China, Korea, and Japan were nearly flat during Phase I, increasing significantly during Phase II, and almost flat again during Phase III. These variations of Ratio in East Asia clearly corresponded to the NOx/SO2 emission ratio and the NO2/SO2 column ratio in China. The first flat trend during Phase I was due to both increases in NOx and SO2 emissions in China, the significant increasing trend during Phase II was triggered by the increase in NOx emission and decrease in SO2 emission in China, and the returned flat trend during Phase III was caused by both declines in NOx and SO2 emissions in China. This suggests that China’s emission has a significant impact not only on China but also on downwind precipitation chemistry during the analyzed 15–year period of 2001–2015. In terms of wet depositions, the NO3− wet deposition amount over China, Korea, and Japan has not changed dramatically, but the nss-SO42− wet deposition amount declined over China, Korea, and Japan from Phase II to III. These declines were caused by a strong decrease in nss-SO42− concentration in precipitation accompanied by a reduction in SO2 emission from China, which counteracted an increase in precipitation amount. It was indicated the decision on the acidity of precipitation would be shift from sulfur to nitrogen.

Courage and the management of developing fisheries

1999 ◽  
Vol 56 (5) ◽  
pp. 897-905 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert J Miller
Keyword(s):  
Phase I ◽  
Incomplete Information ◽  
Phase Ii ◽  
Fishery Management ◽  
Management Plan ◽  
Phase Iii ◽  
Commercial Viability ◽  
Biological Studies ◽  
Term Management

Devising a fishery management plan can be intimidating because of the diversity of issues, incomplete information, and criticism from many quarters. Here, fishery managers and scientists are encouraged to anticipate problems and to set an agenda for solving them. A guide to problems presented by developing fisheries and the order to address them are organized into four phases. In Phase I, fishers are given the opportunity to demonstrate commercial viability with a minimum of interference. In Phase II, the extent of the resource is mapped, gear-related regulations are developed, and fishers begin assuming responsibility for management decisions. In Phase III, basic biological studies are carried out, long-term management targets are set, and monitoring and regulation to achieve the targets are put into place. The fishing-down period should be extended until the long-term management plan is in place. This avoids having to pay for overfishing by underfishing. The challenge of Phase IV is staying the course laid out.

scholarly journals A 15-year record (2001–2015) of the ratio of nitrate to non-sea-salt sulfate in precipitation over East Asia

2018 ◽  
Vol 18 (4) ◽  
pp. 2835-2852 ◽  
Author(s):  
Syuichi Itahashi ◽  
Keiya Yumimoto ◽  
Itsushi Uno ◽  
Hiroshi Hayami ◽  
Shin-ichi Fujita ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Chemical Composition ◽  
Phase I ◽  
East Asia ◽  
Phase Ii ◽  
Wet Deposition ◽  
Sea Salt ◽  
Phase Iii ◽  
So2 Emissions ◽  
Emission Ratio

Abstract. Acidifying species in precipitation can have severe impacts on ecosystems. The chemical composition of precipitation is directly related to the amount of precipitation; accordingly, it is difficult to identify long-term variation in chemical concentrations. The ratio of the nitrate (NO3−) to non-sea-salt sulfate (nss-SO42−) concentration in precipitation on an equivalent basis (hereinafter, Ratio) is a useful index to investigate the relative contributions of these acidifying species. To identify the long-term record of acidifying species in precipitation over East Asia, the region with the highest emissions worldwide, we compiled ground-based observations of the chemical composition of precipitation over China, Korea, and Japan from 2001 to 2015 based on the Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia (EANET). The spatial coverage was limited, but additional monitoring data for Japan, southern China, and northern China around Beijing were utilized. The period of analysis was divided into three phases: Phase I (2001–2005), Phase II (2006–2010), and Phase III (2011–2015). The behaviors of NO3− and nss-SO42− concentrations and hence the Ratio in precipitation were related to these precursors. The anthropogenic NOx and SO2 emissions and the NOx ∕ SO2 emission ratio were analyzed. Further, satellite observations of the NO2 and SO2 column density to capture the variation in emissions were applied. We found that the long-term trend in the NO3− concentration in precipitation was not related to the variation in NOx emission and the NO2 column. In comparison, the nss-SO42− concentration in precipitation over China, Korea, and Japan was partially connected to the changes in SO2 emissions from China, but the trends were not significant. The long-term trends of Ratio over China, Korea, and Japan were nearly flat during Phase I, increased significantly during Phase II, and were essentially flat again during Phase III. This variation in Ratio in East Asia clearly corresponded to the NOx ∕ SO2 emission ratio and the NO2 ∕ SO2 column ratio in China. The initial flat trend during Phase I was due to increases in both NOx and SO2 emissions in China, the significantly increasing trend during Phase II was triggered by the increase in NOx emissions and decrease in SO2 emissions in China, and the return to a flat trend during Phase III was caused by declines in both NOx and SO2 emissions in China. These results suggest that emissions in China had a significant impact not only on China but also on downwind precipitation chemistry during the 15-year period of 2001–2015. In terms of wet deposition, the NO3− wet deposition over China, Korea, and Japan did not change dramatically, but the nss-SO42− wet deposition declined over China, Korea, and Japan from Phase II to III. These declines were caused by a strong decrease in the nss-SO42− concentration in precipitation accompanied by a reduction in SO2 emission from China, which counteracted the increase in precipitation. These findings indicated that the acidity of precipitation shifted from sulfur to nitrogen.

Assessing the role of climate change in human evolution and dispersal: a 600,000-year record from Chew Bahir, southern Ethiopia

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Verena E. Foerster ◽  
Asfawossen Asrat ◽  
Andrew S. Cohen ◽  
Melissa S. Chapot ◽  
Alan Deino ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Climate Change ◽  
High Resolution ◽  
Phase I ◽  
Human Evolution ◽  
Phase Ii ◽  
Homo Sapiens ◽  
Phase Iii ◽  
Eastern Africa ◽  
Drilling Project

<p>What role did climate dynamics play in the evolution and dispersal of <em>Homo sapiens</em> within and beyond Africa, and in key cultural innovations? Were gradual climatic changes, rapid shifts from wet to dry, or short-term climate flickers the main driver of human evolution and migration? As a contribution towards an enhanced understanding of those possible human-climate interactions the Chew Bahir Drilling Project, part of the Hominin Sites and Paleolakes Drilling Project (HSPDP) and the Collaborative Research Center (CRC) 806 “<em>Our way to Europe</em>”, recovered two ~280 m-long sediment cores from a deep, tectonically-bound basin in the southern Ethiopian rift in late 2014. The Chew Bahir record covers the past ~600 ka of environmental history, a critical time period that includes the transition from the Acheulean to the Middle Stone Age, and the origin and dispersal of <em>Homo sapiens</em>.</p><p> </p><p>Here we present the results from our multi-proxy study of the Chew Bahir 280 m-long composite core, providing a detailed and high-resolution record of eastern Africa’s climate oscillations during the last ~600 ka. To determine sediment age we used a Bayesian model to combine ages derived from radiocarbon dating of ostracodes, optically-stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of quartz, Argon-Argon (<sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar) dating of feldspar grains from some key (micro)tephra layers, and correlation on the basis of geochemistry of a tephra unit in the core to a known and dated tephra in the outcrop. We used high-resolution geophysical and geochemical indicators, such as the established aridity proxy K, sediment colour and authigenic minerals to differentiate between climate fluctuations on different time scales and magnitudes.</p><p> </p><p>Our results show that the full proxy record from Chew Bahir can be divided into three phases with similar trends in central tendency and dispersion. Phase I from ~600 to ~430 kyr BP shows a long-term shift from humid to arid conditions while slightly increasing the variability and ending with the most extreme oscillations between full humidity and extreme aridity. The transition into Phase II (~430 to ~200 kyr BP) is marked by a pronounced millennial-scale humidity increase. Phase II reflects generally more humid conditions and there is evidence of double humidity increase tendency. Firstly, between ~430 and ~315 kyr BP (Phase IIa), and again from ~280 to ~195 kyr BP (Phase IIb), with only slight changes in long-term variability. Since ~200 kyr BP (Phase III), a long-term aridification trend sets in, similar to Phase I, but with a distinct increase in variability and amplitudes. All of these changes would have had significant implications for shaping our ancestors’ living environments, both broadening and limiting their options in response to the different degrees and rates of climatic stress. The Chew Bahir record, one of the very few long terrestrial environmental records from continental eastern Africa, can contribute to testing the influence of low versus high latitude climate change in driving the expansion, contraction and fragmentation of early human habitats.</p>

Bewegungstherapie und körperliche Aktivität bei Patienten mit Herzinsuffizienz

Praxis ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 107 (17-18) ◽  
pp. 951-958 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthias Wilhelm
Keyword(s):  
Phase I ◽  
Phase Ii ◽  
Körperliche Aktivität ◽  
Phase Iii

Zusammenfassung. Herzinsuffizienz ist ein klinisches Syndrom mit unterschiedlichen Ätiologien und Phänotypen. Die überwachte Bewegungstherapie und individuelle körperliche Aktivität ist bei allen Formen eine Klasse-IA-Empfehlung in aktuellen Leitlinien. Eine Bewegungstherapie kann unmittelbar nach Stabilisierung einer akuten Herzinsuffizienz im Spital begonnen werden (Phase I). Sie kann nach Entlassung in einem stationären oder ambulanten Präventions- und Rehabilitationsprogramm fortgesetzt werden (Phase II). Typische Elemente sind Ausdauer-, Kraft- und Atemtraining. Die Kosten werden von der Krankenversicherung für drei bis sechs Monate übernommen. In erfahrenen Zentren können auch Patienten mit implantierten Defibrillatoren oder linksventrikulären Unterstützungssystemen trainieren. Wichtiges Ziel der Phase II ist neben muskulärer Rekonditionierung auch die Steigerung der Gesundheitskompetenz, um die Langzeit-Adhärenz bezüglich körperlicher Aktivität zu verbessern. In Phase III bieten Herzgruppen Unterstützung.

scholarly journals AB0332 IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AND IMMONOMODULATING AGENTS IN RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF CLINICAL TRIALS AND THEIR CURRENT DEVELOPMENT STAGE

2020 ◽  
Vol 79 (Suppl 1) ◽  
pp. 1464.1-1465
Author(s):  
J. Blaess ◽  
J. Walther ◽  
J. E. Gottenberg ◽  
J. Sibilia ◽  
L. Arnaud ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Rheumatoid Arthritis ◽  
Systematic Review ◽  
B Cells ◽  
Phase I ◽  
Phase Ii ◽  
Clinical Development ◽  
Phase Iii ◽  
Jak Inhibitors ◽  
Exclusion Criteria ◽  
Immunomodulating Drugs

Background:Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is the most frequent chronic inflammatory diseases with an incidence of 0.5% to 1%. Therapeutic arsenal of RA has continuously expanded in recent years with the recent therapeutic progress with the arrival of conventional synthetic disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (csDMARDs), biological (bDMARDs) and targeted synthetic (tsDMARDs), JAK inhibitors. However, there are still some unmet needs for patients who do not achieve remission and who continue to worsen despite treatments. Of note, only approximately 40% of patients are ACR70 responders, in most randomized controlled trials. For these patients, finding new therapeutic avenues is challenging.Objectives:The objective of our study was to analyze the whole pipeline of immunosuppressive and immunomodulating drugs evaluated in RA and describe their mechanisms of action and stage of clinical development.Methods:We conducted a systematic review of all drug therapies in clinical development in RA in 17 databases of international clinical trials. Inclusion criterion: study from one of the databases using the keywords “Rheumatoid arthritis” (search date: June 1, 2019). Exclusion criteria: non-drug trials, trials not related to RA or duplicates. We also excluded dietary regimen or supplementations, cellular therapies, NSAIDs, glucorticoids or their derivatives and non-immunosuppressive or non-immunomodulating drugs. For each csDMARD, bDMARD and tsDMARD, we considered the study at the most advanced stage. For bDMARDs, we did not take into account biosimilars.Results:The research identified 4652 trials, of which 242 for 243 molecules met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The developed molecules belong to csDMARDs (n=21), bDMARDs (n=117), tsDMARDs (n=105).Among the 21 csDMARDs molecules: 8 (38%) has been withdrawn, 4 (19%) are already labelled in RA (hydroxychloroquine, leflunomide, methotrexate and sulfasalazine) and 9 (43%) are in development: 1 (11%) is in phase I/II, 5 (56%) in phase II, 3 (33%) in phase IV.Among the 117 bDMARDs molecules: 69 (59%) has been withdrawn, 9 (8%) are labeled in RA (abatacept, adalimumab, anakinra, certolizumab, etanercept, golimumab, infliximab, rituximab, sarilumab, tocilizumab) and 39 (33%) are in development: 9 (23%) in phase I, 3 (8%) in phase I/II, 21 (54%) in phase II, 5 (12%) are in phase III, 1 (3%) in phase IV. bDMARDs currently under development target B cells (n=4), T cells (n=2), T/B cells costimulation (n=2),TNF alpha (n=2), Interleukine 1 or his receptor (n=3), Interleukine 6 or his receptor (n=7), Interleukine 17 (n=4), Interleukine 23 (n=1), GM-CSF (n=1), other cytokines or chemokines (n=5), integrins or adhesion proteins (n=3), interferon receptor (n=1) and various other targets (n=4).Among the 105 tsDMARDs molecules: 64 (61%) has been withdrawn, 6 (6%) JAK inhibitors, have just been or will probably soon be labelled (baricitinib, filgotinib, peficitinib, tofacitinib and upadacitinib), 35 (33%) are in development: 8 (24%) in phase I, 26 (74%) in phase II, 1 (3%) in phase III and. tsDMARDs currently under development target tyrosine kinase (n=12), janus kinase (JAK) (n=3), sphingosine phostate (n=3), PI3K pathway (n=1), phosphodiesterase-4 (n=3) B cells signaling pathways (n=3) and various other targets (n=10).Conclusion:A total of 242 therapeutic trials involving 243 molecules have been or are being evaluated in RA. This development does not always lead to new treatments since 141 (58%) have already been withdrawn. Hopefully, some of the currently evaluated drugs will contribute to improve the therapeutic management of RA patients, requiring a greater personalization of therapeutic strategies, both in the choice of molecules and their place in therapeutic sequences.Disclosure of Interests:Julien Blaess: None declared, Julia Walther: None declared, Jacques-Eric Gottenberg Grant/research support from: BMS, Pfizer, Consultant of: BMS, Sanofi-Genzyme, UCB, Speakers bureau: Abbvie, Eli Lilly and Co., Roche, Sanofi-Genzyme, UCB, Jean Sibilia: None declared, Laurent Arnaud: None declared, Renaud FELTEN: None declared

scholarly journals Unconventional Anticancer Agents: A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials

2006 ◽  
Vol 24 (1) ◽  
pp. 136-140 ◽  
Author(s):  
Andrew J. Vickers ◽  
Joyce Kuo ◽  
Barrie R. Cassileth
Keyword(s):  
Clinical Trials ◽  
Phase I ◽  
Cancer Patients ◽  
Phase Ii ◽  
Dose Finding ◽  
Phase Iii ◽  
High Dose ◽  
Free Text ◽  
Phase Ii Trials ◽  
Off Label

Purpose A substantial number of cancer patients turn to treatments other than those recommended by mainstream oncologists in an effort to sustain tumor remission or halt the spread of cancer. These unconventional approaches include botanicals, high-dose nutritional supplementation, off-label pharmaceuticals, and animal products. The objective of this study was to review systematically the methodologies applied in clinical trials of unconventional treatments specifically for cancer. Methods MEDLINE 1966 to 2005 was searched using approximately 200 different medical subject heading terms (eg, alternative medicine) and free text words (eg, laetrile). We sought prospective clinical trials of unconventional treatments in cancer patients, excluding studies with only symptom control or nonclinical (eg, immune) end points. Trial data were extracted by two reviewers using a standardized protocol. Results We identified 14,735 articles, of which 214, describing 198 different clinical trials, were included. Twenty trials were phase I, three were phase I and II, 70 were phase II, and 105 were phase III. Approximately half of the trials investigated fungal products, 20% investigated other botanicals, 10% investigated vitamins and supplements, and 10% investigated off-label pharmaceuticals. Only eight of the phase I trials were dose-finding trials, and a mere 20% of phase II trials reported a statistical design. Of the 27 different agents tested in phase III, only one agent had a prior dose-finding trial, and only for three agents was the definitive study initiated after the publication of phase II data. Conclusion Unconventional cancer treatments have not been subject to appropriate early-phase trial development. Future research on unconventional therapies should involve dose-finding and phase II studies to determine the suitability of definitive trials.

Phase I Trial of Escalating-Dose Irinotecan Given Weekly With Cisplatin and Concurrent Radiotherapy in Locally Advanced Esophageal Cancer

2003 ◽  
Vol 21 (15) ◽  
pp. 2926-2932 ◽  
Author(s):  
David H. Ilson ◽  
Manjit Bains ◽  
David P. Kelsen ◽  
Eileen O’Reilly ◽  
Martin Karpeh ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Esophageal Cancer ◽  
Phase I ◽  
Induction Chemotherapy ◽  
Phase Ii ◽  
Phase I Trial ◽  
Locally Advanced ◽  
Phase Iii ◽  
Concurrent Radiotherapy ◽  
Minimal Toxicity ◽  
Grade 3

Purpose: To identify the maximum-tolerated dose and dose-limiting toxicity (DLT) of weekly irinotecan combined with cisplatin and radiation in esophageal cancer. Patients and Methods: Nineteen patients with clinical stage II to III esophageal squamous cell or adenocarcinoma were treated on this phase I trial. Induction chemotherapy with weekly cisplatin 30 mg/m2 and irinotecan 65 mg/m2 was administered for four treatments during weeks 1 to 5. Radiotherapy was delivered weeks 8 to 13 in 1.8-Gy daily fractions to a dose of 50.4 Gy. Cisplatin 30 mg/m2 and escalating-dose irinotecan (40, 50, 65, and 80 mg/m2) were administered on days 1, 8, 22, and 29 of radiotherapy. DLT was defined as a 2-week delay in radiotherapy for grade 3 to 4 toxicity. Results: Minimal toxicity was observed during chemoradiotherapy, with no grade 3 or 4 esophagitis, diarrhea, or stomatitis. DLT caused by myelosuppression was seen in two of six patients treated at the 80-mg/m2 dose level, thus irinotecan 65 mg/m2 was defined as the recommended phase II dose. Dysphagia improved or resolved after induction chemotherapy in 13 (81%) of 16 patients who reported dysphagia before therapy. Only one patient (5%) required a feeding tube. Six complete responses (32%) were observed, including four pathologic complete responses in 15 patients selected to undergo surgery (27%). Conclusion: Cisplatin, irinotecan, and concurrent radiotherapy can be administered on a convenient schedule with relatively minimal toxicity and an acceptable rate of complete response in esophageal cancer. Further phase II evaluation of this regimen is ongoing. A phase III comparison to fluorouracil or taxane-containing chemoradiotherapy should be considered.

scholarly journals Etude par resonance magnetique des mouvements moléculaires dans l'acrylonitrile solide

1973 ◽  
Vol 51 (23) ◽  
pp. 3889-3900 ◽  
Author(s):  
Buu Ban ◽  
C. CHACHATY
Keyword(s):  
Phase Transitions ◽  
Phase I ◽  
Phase Ii ◽  
Phase Iii ◽  
Solid Matrix ◽  
Peroxy Radicals ◽  
Γ Irradiation ◽  
Rotational Oscillation ◽  
Résonance Magnétique ◽  
Oxygen Addition

Phase transitions and molecular motions in solid acrylonitrile and its deuterated homologue CH2=CDCN, have been studied between 100 and 191 °K (m.p.) by wide line n.m.r. and by T1 relaxation time measurements. Phase I (164 °K < T < 191 °K) is trapped and becomes metastable by quick cooling of acrylonitrile at 77 °K. It changes into the phase II, stable between 113 °K and 164 °K by a long duration annealing at 155–160 °K. The phase II → phase III transition occurs at 113 °K. It may be assumed that phase III, stable below this temperature, is rigid at T < 105 °K. Phase II may be characterized by a rotational oscillation of molecules around an axis defined by the N atom and the middle of the vinyl double bond. In phase I, acrylonitrile molecules undergo a binary reorientation motion around this axis with an activation energy of 4.2 kcal mol−1. The motion of peroxy radicals, trapped in acrylonitrile has been also studied by e.s.r. These radicals were produced by oxygen addition to free radicals previously formed by γ irradiation of acrylonitrile at 77 °K. The g anisotropy variation with temperature, shows no discontinuities at phase transitions, the activation of reorientation of peroxy radicals being 0.65 kcal mol−1. This result suggests that we are dealing in fact with macroradicals, the internal rotation of which is only observable in a solid matrix.

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