scholarly journals Fimbrial Profiles Predict Virulence of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli Strains: Contribution of Ygi and Yad Fimbriae

2011 ◽  
Vol 79 (12) ◽  
pp. 4753-4763 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rachel R. Spurbeck ◽  
Ann E. Stapleton ◽  
James R. Johnson ◽  
Seth T. Walk ◽  
Thomas M. Hooton ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Mouse Model ◽  
Cell Line ◽  
Biofilm Formation ◽  
Asymptomatic Bacteriuria ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
Content Type ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Tract Infections

ABSTRACTEscherichia coli, a cause of ∼90% of urinary tract infections (UTI), utilizes fimbrial adhesins to colonize the uroepithelium. Pyelonephritis isolateE. coliCFT073 carries 12 fimbrial operons, 5 of which have never been studied. Using multiplex PCR, the prevalence of these 12 and 3 additional fimbrial types was determined for a collection of 303E. coliisolates (57 human commensal, 32 animal commensal, 54 asymptomatic bacteriuria, 45 complicated UTI, 38 uncomplicated cystitis, and 77 pyelonephritis). The number of fimbrial types perE. coliisolate was distributed bimodally: those with low (3.2 ± 1.1) and those with high (8.3 ± 1.3) numbers of fimbrial types (means ± standard errors of the means). The fimbrial genesygiL,yadN,yfcV, andc2395were significantly more prevalent among urine isolates than human commensal isolates. The effect of deletion of Ygi and Yad fimbrial operons on growth, motility, biofilm formation, adherence to immortalized human epithelial cells, and pathogenesis in the mouse model of UTI was examined. Yad fimbriae were necessary for wild-type levels of adherence to a bladder epithelial cell line and for biofilm formation. Deletion of these fimbrial genes increased motility. Ygi fimbriae were necessary for wild-type levels of adherence to a human embryonic kidney cell line, biofilm formation, andin vivofitness in the urine and kidneys. Complementation of each fimbrial mutant restored wild-type levels of motility, biofilm formation, adherence and, forygi,in vivofitness. A double deletion strain, Δygi Δyad, was attenuated in the urine, bladder, and kidneys in the mouse model, demonstrating that these fimbriae contribute to uropathogenesis.

scholarly journals Molecular Analysis of Asymptomatic Bacteriuria Escherichia coli Strain VR50 Reveals Adaptation to the Urinary Tract by Gene Acquisition

2015 ◽  
Vol 83 (5) ◽  
pp. 1749-1764 ◽  
Author(s):  
Scott A. Beatson ◽  
Nouri L. Ben Zakour ◽  
Makrina Totsika ◽  
Brian M. Forde ◽  
Rebecca E. Watts ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Urinary Tract ◽  
Mouse Model ◽  
Molecular Mechanisms ◽  
Asymptomatic Bacteriuria ◽  
Human Bladder ◽  
Content Type ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Tract Infections ◽  
K 12

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are among the most common infectious diseases of humans, withEscherichia coliresponsible for >80% of all cases. One extreme of UTI is asymptomatic bacteriuria (ABU), which occurs as an asymptomatic carrier state that resembles commensalism. To understand the evolution and molecular mechanisms that underpin ABU, the genome of the ABUE. colistrain VR50 was sequenced. Analysis of the complete genome indicated that it most resemblesE. coliK-12, with the addition of a 94-kb genomic island (GI-VR50-pheV), eight prophages, and multiple plasmids. GI-VR50-pheVhas a mosaic structure and contains genes encoding a number of UTI-associated virulence factors, namely, Afa (afimbrial adhesin), two autotransporter proteins (Ag43 and Sat), and aerobactin. We demonstrated that the presence of this island in VR50 confers its ability to colonize the murine bladder, as a VR50 mutant with GI-VR50-pheVdeleted was attenuated in a mouse model of UTIin vivo. We established that Afa is the island-encoded factor responsible for this phenotype using two independent deletion (Afa operon and AfaE adhesin) mutants.E. coliVR50afaand VR50afaEdisplayed significantly decreased ability to adhere to human bladder epithelial cells. In the mouse model of UTI, VR50afaand VR50afaEdisplayed reduced bladder colonization compared to wild-type VR50, similar to the colonization level of the GI-VR50-pheVmutant. Our study suggests thatE. coliVR50 is a commensal-like strain that has acquired fitness factors that facilitate colonization of the human bladder.

scholarly journals Identification of Genes Important for Growth of Asymptomatic Bacteriuria Escherichia coli in Urine

2012 ◽  
Vol 80 (9) ◽  
pp. 3179-3188 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rebecca M. Vejborg ◽  
Mari R. de Evgrafov ◽  
Minh Duy Phan ◽  
Makrina Totsika ◽  
Mark A. Schembri ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Human Urine ◽  
Asymptomatic Bacteriuria ◽  
Genetic Determinants ◽  
Content Type ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Growth Defects ◽  
Cell Densities ◽  
Tract Infections

ABSTRACTEscherichia coliis the most important etiological agent of urinary tract infections (UTIs). Unlike uropathogenicE. coli, which causes symptomatic infections, asymptomatic bacteriuria (ABU)E. colistrains typically lack essential virulence factors and colonize the bladder in the absence of symptoms. While ABUE. colican persist in the bladder for long periods of time, little is known about the genetic determinants required for its growth and fitness in urine. To identify such genes, we have employed a transposon mutagenesis approach using the prototypic ABUE. colistrain 83972 and the clinical ABUE. colistrain VR89. Six genes involved in the biosynthesis of various amino acids and nucleobases were identified (carB,argE,argC,purA,metE, andilvC), and site-specific mutants were subsequently constructed inE. coli83972 andE. coliVR89 for each of these genes. In all cases, these mutants exhibited reduced growth rates and final cell densities in human urine. The growth defects could be complemented intransas well as by supplementation with the appropriate amino acid or nucleobase. When assessedin vivoin a mouse model,E. coli83972carABand 83972argCshowed a significantly reduced competitive advantage in the bladder and/or kidney during coinoculation experiments with the parent strain, whereas 83972metEand 83972ilvCdid not. Taken together, our data have identified several biosynthesis pathways as new important fitness factors associated with the growth of ABUE. coliin human urine.

scholarly journals In Vivo Bioluminescent Monitoring of Therapeutic Efficacy and Pharmacodynamic Target Assessment of Antofloxacin against Escherichia coli in a Neutropenic Murine Thigh Infection Model

2017 ◽  
Vol 62 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Yu-Feng Zhou ◽  
Meng-Ting Tao ◽  
Yu-Zhang He ◽  
Jian Sun ◽  
Ya-Hong Liu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Subcutaneous Administration ◽  
Free Drug ◽  
Infection Model ◽  
Bioluminescent Imaging ◽  
Time Curve ◽  
Content Type ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Tract Infections

ABSTRACT Antimicrobial resistance among uropathogens has increased the rates of infection-related morbidity and mortality. Antofloxacin is a novel fluoroquinolone with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against urinary Gram-negative bacilli, such as Escherichia coli. This study monitored the in vivo efficacy of antofloxacin using bioluminescent imaging and determined pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) targets against E. coli isolates in a neutropenic murine thigh infection model. The PK properties were determined after subcutaneous administration of antofloxacin at 2.5, 10, 40, and 160 mg/kg of body weight. Following thigh infection, the mice were treated with 2-fold-increasing doses of antofloxacin from 2.5 to 80 mg/kg administered every 12 h. Efficacy was assessed by quantitative determination of the bacterial burdens in thigh homogenates and was compared with the bioluminescent density. Antofloxacin demonstrated both static and killing endpoints in relation to the initial burden against all study strains. The PK/PD index area under the concentration-time curve (AUC)/MIC correlated well with efficacy (R 2 = 0.92), and the dose-response relationship was relatively steep, as observed with escalating doses of antofloxacin. The mean free drug AUC/MIC targets necessary to produce net bacterial stasis and 1-log10 and 2-log10 kill for each isolate were 38.7, 66.1, and 147.0 h, respectively. In vivo bioluminescent imaging showed a rapid decrease in the bioluminescent density at free drug AUC/MIC exposures that exceeded the stasis targets. The integration of these PD targets combined with the results of PK studies with humans will be useful in setting optimal dosing regimens for the treatment of urinary tract infections due to E. coli.

scholarly journals In Vivo mRNA Profiling of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli from Diverse Phylogroups Reveals Common and Group-Specific Gene Expression Profiles

mBio ◽  
2014 ◽  
Vol 5 (4) ◽  
Author(s):  
Piotr Bielecki ◽  
Uthayakumar Muthukumarasamy ◽  
Denitsa Eckweiler ◽  
Agata Bielecka ◽  
Sarah Pohl ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Gene Expression ◽  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Expression Profiles ◽  
Gene Expression Profiles ◽  
Specific Gene ◽  
Content Type ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Human Host ◽  
Tract Infections

ABSTRACTmRNA profiling of pathogens during the course of human infections gives detailed information on the expression levels of relevant genes that drive pathogenicity and adaptation and at the same time allows for the delineation of phylogenetic relatedness of pathogens that cause specific diseases. In this study, we used mRNA sequencing to acquire information on the expression ofEscherichia colipathogenicity genes during urinary tract infections (UTI) in humans and to assign the UTI-associatedE. coliisolates to different phylogenetic groups. Whereas thein vivogene expression profiles of the majority of genes were conserved among 21E. colistrains in the urine of elderly patients suffering from an acute UTI, the specific gene expression profiles of the flexible genomes was diverse and reflected phylogenetic relationships. Furthermore, genes transcribedin vivorelative to laboratory media included well-described virulence factors, small regulatory RNAs, as well as genes not previously linked to bacterial virulence. Knowledge on relevant transcriptional responses that drive pathogenicity and adaptation of isolates to the human host might lead to the introduction of a virulence typing strategy into clinical microbiology, potentially facilitating management and prevention of the disease.IMPORTANCEUrinary tract infections (UTI) are very common; at least half of all women experience UTI, most of which are caused by pathogenicEscherichia colistrains. In this study, we applied massive parallel cDNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to provide unbiased, deep, and accurate insight into the nature and the dimension of the uropathogenicE. coligene expression profile during an acute UTI within the human host. This work was undertaken to identify key players in physiological adaptation processes and, hence, potential targets for new infection prevention and therapy interventions specifically aimed at sabotaging bacterial adaptation to the human host.

scholarly journals Role of Urinary Cathelicidin LL-37 and Human β-Defensin 1 in Uncomplicated Escherichia coli Urinary Tract Infections

2014 ◽  
Vol 82 (4) ◽  
pp. 1572-1578 ◽  
Author(s):  
Karen L. Nielsen ◽  
Pia Dynesen ◽  
Preben Larsen ◽  
Lotte Jakobsen ◽  
Paal S. Andersen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Urinary Tract ◽  
Urinary Tract Infections ◽  
Adult Women ◽  
Content Type ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Innate Defense ◽  
High Level ◽  
Tract Infections

ABSTRACTCathelicidin (LL-37) and human β-defensin 1 (hBD-1) are important components of the innate defense in the urinary tract. The aim of this study was to characterize whether these peptides are important for developing uncomplicatedEscherichia coliurinary tract infections (UTIs). This was investigated by comparing urinary peptide levels of UTI patients during and after infection to those of controls, as well as characterizing the fecal flora of participants with respect to susceptibility to LL-37 andin vivovirulence. Forty-seven UTI patients and 50 controls who had never had a UTI were included. Participants were otherwise healthy, premenopausal, adult women. LL-37 MIC levels were compared for fecalE. coliclones from patients and controls and were also compared based on phylotypes (A, B1, B2, and D).In vivovirulence was investigated in the murine UTI model by use of selected fecal isolates from patients and controls. On average, UTI patients had significantly more LL-37 in urine during infection than postinfection, and patient LL-37 levels postinfection were significantly lower than those of controls. hBD-1 showed similar urine levels for UTI patients and controls. FecalE. coliisolates from controls had higher LL-37 susceptibility than fecal and UTIE. coliisolates from UTI patients.In vivostudies showed a high level of virulence of fecalE. coliisolates from both patients and controls and showed no difference in virulence correlated with the LL-37 MIC level. The results indicate that the concentration of LL-37 in the urinary tract and low susceptibility to LL-37 may increase the likelihood of UTI in a complex interplay between host and pathogen attributes.

scholarly journals The UbiI (VisC) Aerobic Ubiquinone Synthase Is Required for Expression of Type 1 Pili, Biofilm Formation, and Pathogenesis in Uropathogenic Escherichia coli

2016 ◽  
Vol 198 (19) ◽  
pp. 2662-2672 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kyle A. Floyd ◽  
Courtney A. Mitchell ◽  
Allison R. Eberly ◽  
Spencer J. Colling ◽  
Ellisa W. Zhang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Urinary Tract ◽  
Biofilm Formation ◽  
Energy Deficit ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Anoxic Conditions ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Type 1 Pili ◽  
Tract Infections

ABSTRACTUropathogenicEscherichia coli(UPEC), which causes the majority of urinary tract infections (UTI), uses pilus-mediated adherence to initiate biofilm formation in the urinary tract. Oxygen gradients withinE. colibiofilms regulate expression and localization of adhesive type 1 pili. A transposon mutant screen for strains defective in biofilm formation identified theubiI(formerlyvisC) aerobic ubiquinone synthase gene as critical for UPEC biofilm formation. In this study, we characterized a nonpolarubiIdeletion mutant and compared its behavior to that of wild-type bacteria grown under aerobic and anoxic conditions. Consistent with its function as an aerobic ubiquinone-8 synthase, deletion ofubiIin UPEC resulted in reduced membrane potential, diminished motility, and reduced expression of chaperone-usher pathway pili. Loss of aerobic respiration was previously shown to negatively impact expression of type 1 pili. To determine whether this reduction in type 1 pili was due to an energy deficit, wild-type UPEC and theubiImutant were compared for energy-dependent phenotypes under anoxic conditions, in which quinone synthesis is undertaken by anaerobic quinone synthases. Under anoxic conditions, the two strains exhibited wild-type levels of motility but produced diminished numbers of type 1 pili, suggesting that the reduction of type 1 pilus expression in the absence of oxygen is not due to a cellular energy deficit. Acute- and chronic-infection studies in a mouse model of UTI revealed a significant virulence deficit in theubiImutant, indicating that UPEC encounters enough oxygen in the bladder to induce aerobic ubiquinone synthesis during infection.IMPORTANCEThe majority of urinary tract infections are caused by uropathogenicE. coli, a bacterium that can respire in the presence and absence of oxygen. The bladder environment is hypoxic, with oxygen concentrations ranging from 4% to 7%, compared to 21% atmospheric oxygen. This work provides evidence that aerobic ubiquinone synthesis must be engaged during bladder infection, indicating that UPEC bacteria sense and use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor in the bladder and that this ability drives infection potential despite the fact that UPEC is a facultative anaerobe.

scholarly journals Escherichia coli CFT073 Fitness Factors during Urinary Tract Infection: Identification Using an Ordered Transposon Library

2020 ◽  
Vol 86 (13) ◽  
Author(s):  
Allyson E. Shea ◽  
Juan Marzoa ◽  
Stephanie D. Himpsl ◽  
Sara N. Smith ◽  
Lili Zhao ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Urinary Tract ◽  
Urinary Tract Infections ◽  
Human Urine ◽  
Transposon Mutagenesis ◽  
Content Type ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Tract Infections

ABSTRACT Urinary tract infections (UTI), the second most diagnosed infectious disease worldwide, are caused primarily by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC), placing a significant financial burden on the health care system. High-throughput transposon mutagenesis combined with genome-targeted sequencing is a powerful technique to interrogate genomes for fitness genes. Genome-wide analysis of E. coli requires random libraries of at least 50,000 mutants to achieve 99.99% saturation; however, the traditional murine model of ascending UTI does not permit testing of large mutant pools due to a bottleneck during infection. To address this, an E. coli CFT073 transposon mutant ordered library of 9,216 mutants was created and insertion sites were identified. A single transposon mutant was selected for each gene to assemble a condensed library consisting of 2,913 unique nonessential mutants. Using a modified UTI model in BALB/c mice, we identified 36 genes important for colonizing the bladder, including purB, yihE, and carB. Screening of the condensed library in vitro identified yigP and ubiG to be essential for growth in human urine. Additionally, we developed a novel quantitative PCR (qPCR) technique to identify genes with fitness defects within defined subgroups of related genes (e.g., genes encoding fimbriae, toxins, etc.) following UTI. The number of mutants within these subgroups circumvents bottleneck restriction and facilitates validation of multiple mutants to generate individual competitive indices. Collectively, this study investigates the bottleneck effects during UTI, provides two techniques for evading those effects that can be applied to other disease models, and contributes a genetic tool in prototype strain CFT073 to the field. IMPORTANCE Uropathogenic Escherichia coli strains cause most uncomplicated urinary tract infections (UTI), one of the most common infectious diseases worldwide. Random transposon mutagenesis techniques have been utilized to identify essential bacterial genes during infection; however, this has been met with limitations when applied to the murine UTI model. Conventional high-throughput transposon mutagenesis screens are not feasible because of inoculum size restrictions due to a bottleneck during infection. Our study utilizes a condensed ordered transposon library, limiting the number of mutants while maintaining the largest possible genome coverage. Screening of this library in vivo, and in human urine in vitro, identified numerous candidate fitness factors. Additionally, we have developed a novel technique using qPCR to quantify bacterial outputs following infection with small subgroups of transposon mutants. Molecular approaches developed in this study will serve as useful tools to probe in vivo models that are restricted by anatomical, physiological, or genetic bottleneck limitations.

scholarly journals Genetic Analysis of the Role ofyfiRin the Ability of Escherichia coli CFT073 To Control Cellular Cyclic Dimeric GMP Levels and To Persist in the Urinary Tract

2013 ◽  
Vol 81 (9) ◽  
pp. 3089-3098 ◽  
Author(s):  
Erica L. Raterman ◽  
Daniel D. Shapiro ◽  
Daniel J. Stevens ◽  
Kevin J. Schwartz ◽  
Rodney A. Welch
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Urinary Tract ◽  
Type Strain ◽  
Wild Type Strain ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
Cellulose Production ◽  
Content Type ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Successful Infection ◽  
Tract Infections

ABSTRACTDuring urinary tract infections (UTIs), uropathogenicEscherichia colimust maintain a delicate balance between sessility and motility to achieve successful infection of both the bladder and kidneys. Previous studies showed that cyclic dimeric GMP (c-di-GMP) levels aid in the control of the transition between motile and nonmotile states inE. coli. TheyfiRNBlocus inE. coliCFT073 contains genes for YfiN, a diguanylate cyclase, and its activity regulators, YfiR and YfiB. Deletion ofyfiRyielded a mutant that was attenuated in both the bladder and the kidneys when tested in competition with the wild-type strain in the murine model of UTI. A doubleyfiRNmutant was not attenuated in the mouse model, suggesting that unregulated YfiN activity and likely increased cytoplasmic c-di-GMP levels cause a survival defect. Curli fimbriae and cellulose production were increased in theyfiRmutant. Expression ofyhjH, a gene encoding a proven phosphodiesterase, in CFT073 ΔyfiRsuppressed the overproduction of curli fimbriae and cellulose and further verified that deletion ofyfiRresults in c-di-GMP accumulation. Additional deletion ofcsgDandbcsA, genes necessary for curli fimbriae and cellulose production, respectively, returned colonization levels of theyfiRdeletion mutant to wild-type levels. Peroxide sensitivity assays and iron acquisition assays displayed no significant differences between theyfiRmutant and the wild-type strain. These results indicate that dysregulation of c-di-GMP production results in pleiotropic effects that disableE. coliin the urinary tract and implicate the c-di-GMP regulatory system as an important factor in the persistence of uropathogenicE. coli in vivo.

scholarly journals Role of the Vpe Carbohydrate Permease in Escherichia coli Urovirulence and FitnessIn Vivo

2012 ◽  
Vol 80 (8) ◽  
pp. 2655-2666 ◽  
Author(s):  
Vanessa Martinez-Jéhanne ◽  
Christophe Pichon ◽  
Laurence du Merle ◽  
Olivier Poupel ◽  
Nadège Cayet ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Mouse Model ◽  
Sugar Transport ◽  
Gene Clusters ◽  
Content Type ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Healthy Humans ◽  
Gut Colonization

ABSTRACTUropathogenicEscherichia coli(UPEC) strains are a leading cause of infections in humans, but the mechanisms governing host colonization by this bacterium remain poorly understood. Previous studies have identified numerous gene clusters encoding proteins involved in sugar transport, in pathogen-specific islands. We investigated the role in fitness and virulence of thevpeoperon encoding an EII complex of the phosphotransferase (PTS) system, which is found more frequently in human strains from infected urine and blood (45%) than inE. coliisolated from healthy humans (15%). We studied the role of this locusin vivo, using the UPECE. colistrain AL511, mutants, and complemented derivatives in two experimental mouse models of infection. Mutant strains displayed attenuated virulence in a mouse model of sepsis. A role in kidney colonization was also demonstrated by coinfection experiments in a mouse model of pyelonephritis. Electron microscopy examinations showed that thevpeBCmutant produced much smaller amounts of a capsule-like surface material than the wild type, particularly when growing in human urine. Complementation of thevpeBCmutation led to an increase in the amount of exopolysaccharide, resistance to serum killing, and virulence. It was therefore clear that the loss ofvpegenes was responsible for all the observed phenotypes. We also demonstrated the involvement of thevpelocus in gut colonization in the streptomycin-treated mouse model of intestinal colonization. These findings confirm that carbohydrate transport and metabolism underlie the ability of UPEC strains to colonize the host intestine and to infect various host sites.

scholarly journals The Asymptomatic Bacteriuria Escherichia coli Strain 83972 Outcompetes Uropathogenic E. coli Strains in Human Urine

2006 ◽  
Vol 74 (1) ◽  
pp. 615-624 ◽  
Author(s):  
Viktoria Roos ◽  
Glen C. Ulett ◽  
Mark A. Schembri ◽  
Per Klemm
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Urinary Tract ◽  
Human Urine ◽  
Expression Profiles ◽  
Asymptomatic Bacteriuria ◽  
Gene Expression Profiles ◽  
Coli Strain ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Tract Infections

ABSTRACT Escherichia coli is the most common organism associated with asymptomatic bacteriuria (ABU). In contrast to uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC), which causes symptomatic urinary tract infections (UTI), very little is known about the mechanisms by which these strains colonize the human urinary tract. The prototype ABU E. coli strain 83972 was originally isolated from a girl who had carried it asymptomatically for 3 years. Deliberate colonization of UTI-susceptible individuals with E. coli 83972 has been used successfully as an alternative approach for the treatment of patients who are refractory to conventional therapy. Colonization with strain 83972 appears to prevent infection with UPEC strains in such patients despite the fact that this strain is unable to express the primary adhesins involved in UTI, viz. P and type 1 fimbriae. Here we investigated the growth characteristics of E. coli 83972 in human urine and show that it can outcompete a representative spectrum of UPEC strains for growth in urine. The unique ability of ABU E. coli 83972 to outcompete UPEC in urine was also demonstrated in a murine model of human UTI, confirming the selective advantage over UPEC in vivo. Comparison of global gene expression profiles of E. coli 83972 grown in lab medium and human urine revealed significant differences in expression levels in the two media; significant down-regulation of genes encoding virulence factors such as hemolysin, lipid A, and capsular polysaccharides was observed in cells grown in urine. Clearly, divergent abilities of ABU E. coli and UPEC to exploit human urine as a niche for persistence and survival suggest that these key differences may be exploited for preventative and/or therapeutic approaches.

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