The Size and Distribution of Hidden Household Income in China

2011 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-26 ◽  
Author(s):  
Xiaolu Wang ◽  
Wing Thye Woo
Keyword(s):  
Low Income ◽  
Household Income ◽  
National Income ◽  
Income Group ◽  
High Income ◽  
Institutional Reforms ◽  
Middle Income ◽  
Urban Household ◽  
Household Disposable Income ◽  
Official Data

Official Chinese data on urban household income are seriously flawed because of significant underreporting of income by respondents and non-participation by the high income groups in official household surveys. We collected urban household income and expenditure data in a way that increased their reliability and the coverage of the wealthy. We utilized the well-known relationship between Engel's coefficient and income level through two different approaches to deduce the true level of household income for each of the seven Chinese income categories (lowest income, low income, lower middle income, middle income, upper middle income, high income, and highest income). We found that the ratio of our estimated income to official income increased from 1.12 for the lowest income group to 3.19 for the highest income group. Total household disposable income in 2008 is RMB 14.0 trillion according to the official data but RMB 23.2 trillion according to our estimate; and 63 percent of the unreported income went to the wealthiest 10 percent of urban households. The income of the wealthiest 10 percent of Chinese households is really 65 times that of the poorest 10 percent instead of the 23 times reported in the official data. The Gini coefficient is clearly much higher than the usually reported figure of 0.47. In one of the estimations, we had to drop the 76 wealthiest households (1.8 percent of our sample) from the analysis because there were no super-rich in the official data for us to match characteristics with. We therefore still understate the income of the highest income households. As the amount of unreported income indicates the degree of corruption, it is troubling that it grew 91 percent in 2005–08 compared to the 71 percent growth in gross national income. Serious institutional reforms must be enacted if corruption is not to derail economic development and social harmony.

scholarly journals Forecasting of Households Consumption Expenditure with Nonparametric Regression: The Case of Turkey

2016 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 19-32
Author(s):  
Noyan Aydin ◽  
Taner Akmercan
Keyword(s):  
Low Income ◽  
Household Income ◽  
Household Size ◽  
High Income ◽  
Consumption Expenditure ◽  
Income Levels ◽  
Parametric Regression ◽  
Household Disposable Income ◽  
R Programming ◽  
The Relationship

Abstract The relationship between household income and expenditure is important for understanding how the shape of the economic dynamics of the households. In this study, the relationship between household consumption expenditure and household disposable income were analyzed by Locally Weighted Scatterplot Smoothing Regression which is a nonparametric method using R programming. This study aimed to determine relationship between variables directly, unlike making any assumptions are commonly used as in the conventional parametric regression. According to the findings, effect on expenditure with increasing of income and household size together increased rapidly at first, and then speed of increase decreased. This increase can be explained by having greater compulsory consumption expenditure relatively in small households. Besides, expenditure is relatively higher in middle and high income levels according to low income level. However, the change in expenditure is limited in middle and is the most limited in high income levels when household size changes.

scholarly journals Long-Term Effect of Income Level on Mortality after Stroke: A Nationwide Cohort Study in South Korea

2020 ◽  
Vol 17 (22) ◽  
pp. 8348
Author(s):  
Seungmin Jeong ◽  
Sung-il Cho ◽  
So Yeon Kong
Keyword(s):  
Low Income ◽  
Income Group ◽  
Income Level ◽  
High Income ◽  
High Income Group ◽  
Stroke Mortality ◽  
Stroke Event ◽  
Middle Income ◽  
Medical Aid ◽  
Post Stroke

We investigated whether income level has long-term effects on mortality rate in stroke patients and whether this varies with time after the first stroke event, using the National Health Insurance Service National Sample Cohort data from 2002 to 2015 in South Korea. The study population was new-onset stroke patients ≥18 years of age. Patients were categorized into Category (1) insured employees and Category (2) insured self-employed/Medical Aid beneficiaries. Each category was divided into three and four income level groups, retrospectively. The study population comprised of 11,668 patients. Among the Category 1 patients (n = 7720), the low-income group’s post-stroke mortality was 1.15-fold higher than the high-income group. Among the Category 2 patients (n = 3948), the lower income groups had higher post-stroke mortality than the high-income group (middle-income, aOR (adjusted odds ratio) 1.29; low-income, aOR 1.70; Medical Aid beneficiaries, aOR 2.19). In this category, the lower income groups’ post-stroke mortality risks compared to the high-income group were highest at 13–36 months after the first stroke event(middle-income, aOR 1.52; low-income, aOR 2.31; Medical Aid beneficiaries, aOR 2.53). Medical Aid beneficiaries had a significantly higher post-stroke mortality risk than the high-income group at all time points.

Abstract P130: Association Between Ready-to-eat Cereal Consumption And Nutrient Intakes Among Children 2 To 18 Years, Stratified By Household Income: Results From The National Health And Nutrition Examination Survey 2015-2018

Circulation ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 143 (Suppl_1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Jessica Smith ◽  
Neha Jain ◽  
James Normington ◽  
Norton Holschuh ◽  
Yong Zhu
Keyword(s):  
Vitamin D ◽  
National Health ◽  
Low Income ◽  
Household Income ◽  
Income Group ◽  
High Income ◽  
Nutrition Examination Survey ◽  
Nutrient Intakes ◽  
Vitamin D Intake ◽  
Health And Nutrition

Ready-to-eat (RTE) cereal has been associated with higher diet quality and dairy intake (it is often consumed with milk) in children and is an affordable source of under-consumed nutrients and whole grains. Because of its affordability and accessibility, the contribution of RTE cereal to nutrient and whole grain intake could potentially differ by household income level. We hypothesized that children living in low income households, which may be more susceptible to poor dietary intakes due to food insecurity, may differentially benefit, in terms of nutrient intake, from RTE cereal consumption compared to children in higher income households. The objective of this study was to quantify the nutrient intakes of U.S. children who reported consuming RTE cereal eater versus those that did not according to household income. We used data from the 2015-2016 and 2017-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, a nationally representative, cross-sectional survey. Children 2 to 18 years (n=5,028) were stratified into six groups according to RTE cereal consumption (cereal eaters vs non-eaters) and poverty-to-income ratio (PIR; low-, mid-, and high-income). We calculated the difference in intakes of 28 nutrients between cereal eaters and non-eaters stratified by PIR. Overall, it appeared that there was a greater difference in intake of nutrients between RTE cereal eaters and non-eaters for the low-income compared to the high-income children. For example, in the low-income group, RTE cereal eaters had 23% higher calcium, 70% higher iron, and 90% higher vitamin D intake compared to non-RTE cereal eaters (p<0.0001 for all). In the high-income group, these differences were attenuated with cereal eaters having 12% higher calcium (p=0.03), 58% higher iron (p<0.0001), and 62% higher vitamin D intake (p<0.0001) compared to non-RTE cereal eaters. These data suggest that although cereal eaters had higher intake of under-consumed nutrients across all incomes, children in the low-income group particularly benefited.

Smokers’ perceptions of incentivised smoking cessation programmes: Examining how payment thresholds change with income

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rachel J Breen ◽  
Stuart G Ferguson ◽  
Matthew A Palmer
Keyword(s):  
Smoking Cessation ◽  
Low Income ◽  
Financial Incentive ◽  
Growth Models ◽  
Income Group ◽  
High Income ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Quadratic Trend ◽  
Middle Income ◽  
Low And Middle Income

Abstract Introduction Studies demonstrate that financial incentive programmes increase smoking cessation. However, there is little guidance on which incentive magnitudes will ensure optimal enrolment and motivation levels. This study investigates current smokers’ perceptions of varying incentive magnitudes to identify whether there is evidence for optimal amount(s), and whether perceptions differ by income group. Methods Studies 1 (N = 56) and 2 (N = 147) were conducted online via Prolific.co. Current smokers were randomly shown multiple hypothetical incentive programmes which differed only in the incentive amount offered. For each programme, smokers rated its appeal, their likelihood of enrolling, and predicted their motivation to quit if enrolled. Growth models were used to investigate the relationship between perspectives and the incentive amount. Results An increasing quadratic trend in smokers’ perceptions of programmes as the incentive amount increased was identified. Incentive amounts beyond approximately £50-75/week (£500 to £750 total) did not significantly alter perceptions of programmes. In Study 2, high-income smokers found programmes significantly less appealing and motivating than low-income smokers, although no significant between-group differences were observed in the likelihood of enrolment. No significant differences were observed between low- and middle-income smokers. Conclusions Increasing the incentive amount increased smoker’s perceptions of programmes. This relationship was curvilinear, meaning there may be a point beyond which further increasing the amount will not improve enrolment or motivation levels. Incentives appear equally appealing to low- and middle-income smokers; the population among whom smoking is most prevalent. Future research could explore other elements of programme design, and whether findings hold under real-world conditions. Implications While acknowledging that they work, policymakers frequently request information about the monetary amount needed for incentive programmes to be effective, and if this differs by income level. We investigated these questions using smokers’ perceptions of hypothetical cessation programmes which differed in the amount offered. An increasing quadratic trend in perceptions of programmes by the amount and potential cut-points were observed, suggesting a point may exist beyond which increasing the incentive will not improve perceptions of programmes or enrolment levels. High-income smokers may not perceive incentives to be as appealing as other income groups, but appear equally willing to enrol.

scholarly journals Consumer Characteristics and Preferences of Rice Attributes Based on the Income Levels in Palembang

2020 ◽  
pp. 16-25
Author(s):  
. Yunita ◽  
. Lifianthi ◽  
Muhammad Arbi
Keyword(s):  
Low Income ◽  
Household Income ◽  
Consumer Preferences ◽  
Income Group ◽  
High Income ◽  
High Income Group ◽  
Rice Cake ◽  
Income Groups ◽  
Head Rice ◽  
Low Income Groups

The study was conducted on 150 respondents living in Palembang city that were randomly selected based on the assumptions of community groups that have high income groups (50 respondents), medium income groups (50 respondents), and low income groups (50 respondents). The purpose of the study is to describe the characteristics of consumers and analyze consumer preferences for rice attributes based on the level of household income in Palembang city. This showed that the characteristics of households from the three level groups, both from the high, medium, and low income groups are very diverse which can influence the decision to choose and buy rice to be consumed. Rice attributes include the level of rice extinction, rice retention, taste of rice, aromatic, type of rice, volume of development, head rice, broken grains, grain groats, lime grains, and color. Household consumer preferences based on the importance level of rice attributes for the very important category most selected in the high and medium income groups are the quality before the rice becomes rice, while the low income group is a resilience factor in rice. Household consumer preferences based on the level of preference for the attribute of rice for the category of very like the most chosen in the high income group is the taste of rice, for the medium income group is rice cake and the low income group is rice and head rice.

scholarly journals STUDI EFEKTIVITAS VAKSIN INFLUENZA: UPDATED REVIEW

2021 ◽  
Vol 3 (1) ◽  
pp. 48-56
Author(s):  
Abednego Kristande Gwiharto ◽  
Cecep Suhandi ◽  
Cheryl Alodya ◽  
Rano K. Sinurya
Keyword(s):  
Influenza Vaccine ◽  
Low Income ◽  
National Income ◽  
Type A ◽  
High Income ◽  
Influenza Viruses ◽  
Influenza Vaccines ◽  
Low Income Countries ◽  
Middle Income ◽  
Middle Income Countries

Influenza is caused by a rapidly mutating viruse that consists of 2 types, namely type A with the H1N1 and H3N2 genotypes and type B. Influenza caused global mortality with 250,000-500,000 death in 2009. The effectiveness of vaccines also changes regarding the mutation of influenza viruses, however, in the development and utilization of influenza vaccines should be supported by the economic status of a country. Up to now, there are many countries that have not prioritized the utilization of influenza vaccines. The target of influenza vaccination are children and adults (> 60 years old). The purpose of this review was to determine the effectiveness of influenza vaccines from various countries and categorized based on their income. This review used Medline, Elsevier, and BMC Public Health as the database with the keywords "Effectiveness" and "Influenza vaccine". Then, the articles are selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Based on the initial search there are 784 articles that match the keywords, and only 13 articles met the criteria. These articles are classified based on the center of the study in order to classify based on their national income; 5 studies in high income countries, 5 studies in upper-middle income countries, 3 studies in lower-middle income countries, and 1 study in low income countries. The results showed that the administration of influenza vaccine in high income and upper-middle income countries is quite effective for type A H1N1 genotypes, where as H3N2 is less effective. In the lower-middle income countries, the utilization of vaccines with type A H3N2 genotypes was effective, however, in the low-income countries, the effectiveness of vaccines has not been justified due to the limited study of type of influenza and the administration of influenza vaccines in those countries.  

scholarly journals International Environmental Efficiency Trends and the Impact of the Paris Agreement

Energies ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 14 (15) ◽  
pp. 4503
Author(s):  
Wen-Chi Yang ◽  
Wen-Min Lu ◽  
Alagu Perumal Ramasamy
Keyword(s):  
Low Income ◽  
Dynamic Change ◽  
Income Group ◽  
Paris Agreement ◽  
High Income ◽  
Environmental Efficiency ◽  
High Income Group ◽  
Middle Income ◽  
Income Groups ◽  
The Impact

This study estimates the environmental efficiency of 150 economies during the period of 2010–2017 to understand the environmental efficiency trend worldwide. This research adopts the meta-Malmquist approach to compare and capture the dynamic change in environmental efficiency among different income groups. The empirical results indicate that among the four income groups, only the low-income group suffers from regression in terms of environmental efficiency, while the high-income group achieves the greatest progress. For the high-income group, the source of improvement originates from the frontier shift rather than from efficiency change. By contrast, the improvement of the lower-income groups results from the catching-up effect. With regard to the effect of the Paris Agreement, only the lower middle-income group exhibits a statistical difference between the two periods, and environmental efficiency increases after the adoption of the Paris Agreement. The fight against global warming cannot succeed by relying only on specific countries. The whole world must cooperate and improve together, and thus, additional help must be devoted to the low-income group. The statistical results support that differences exist in terms of environmental efficiency among the four income groups. In particular, the low-income group is deteriorating.

scholarly journals Comparison of Household Income In In-Hospital Outcomes After Implantation of Left Ventricular Assist Device

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bertrand Ebner ◽  
Morgan Karetnick ◽  
Jelani Grant ◽  
Louis Vincent ◽  
Jennifer Maning ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Low Income ◽  
Household Income ◽  
Income Group ◽  
Left Ventricular ◽  
High Income ◽  
Ventricular Assist Devices ◽  
High Income Group ◽  
Hospital Outcomes ◽  
Ventricular Assist ◽  
Left Ventricular Assist

Introduction: Due to the inability to keep up with the demand for heart transplantation, there is an increased utilization of left ventricular assist devices (LVAD). However, paucity of data exists regarding the association of household income with in-hospital outcomes after LVAD implantation. Methods: Retrospective cohort study using the NIS to identify all patients ≥18 years who underwent LVAD implantation from 2011-2017. Statistical analysis was performed comparing low household income (≤50th percentile) and high income (>50th percentile). Results: A total of 25,503 patients underwent LVAD implantation. The low-income group represented 53% and the high-income group corresponded to 47% of the entire cohort. The low-income group was found to be younger (mean age 55 ±14 vs. 58 ±14 years), higher proportion of females (24% vs. 22%), and higher proportion of blacks (32% vs. 16%, p<0.001 for all). The low-income group was found to have higher prevalence of hypertension, chronic pulmonary disease, smoking, dyslipidemia, obesity and pulmonary hypertension (p<0.001 for all). However, the high-income cohort had higher rate of atrial tachyarrhythmias and end-stage renal disease (p<0.001). During hospitalization, patients in the high-income group had increased rates of ischemic stroke, acute kidney injury, acute coronary syndrome, bleeding and need of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (p<0.001 for all). We found that the unadjusted mortality had an OR 1.30 (CI [1.21-1.41], p<0.001) and adjusted mortality of OR 1.14 (CI [1.05-1.23], p=0.002). Conclusion: In patients undergoing LVAD implantation nationwide, low-income was associated with increased comorbidity burden, younger age, and fewer in-hospital complications and all-cause mortality.

scholarly journals Unifying global pandemic preparedness efforts

2021 ◽  
pp. 76-81
Author(s):  
Jesus Siller-Farfan ◽  
Stephanie Gaglione
Keyword(s):  
Low Income ◽  
International Health ◽  
Income Group ◽  
High Income ◽  
Low Income Countries ◽  
Pandemic Preparedness ◽  
Health Security ◽  
Middle Income ◽  
Global Pandemic ◽  
Policies And Programs

The COVID-19 pandemic illustrates the need for pandemic preparedness to be considered a global rather than a national metric. The 2005 International Health Regulations and supporting policy provide a foundation for building pandemic preparedness and health security in all countries. Examining the engagement of high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries in existing policies and programs, each income group can redress different challenges. With improved engagement in international regulations, targeted donor programs by high-income countries, and strengthened core health capacities in middle- and low-income countries, global pandemic preparedness is possible within the existing policy landscape.

scholarly journals The Impact of the Asian Crisis on Governance: Does OECD Membership or Income Levels Matter?

2018 ◽  
Vol 13 (2) ◽  
pp. 115-130
Author(s):  
Halil Dincer Kaya
Keyword(s):  
Low Income ◽  
Political Stability ◽  
Income Group ◽  
Oecd Countries ◽  
High Income ◽  
Asian Crisis ◽  
Low Income Countries ◽  
Middle Income ◽  
Governance Indicators ◽  
The Impact

AbstractWe examine the impact of the 1997 Asian Crisis on governance. We look into how the crisis affected High-Income OECD, High-Income Non-OECD, Upper-middle Income, Lower- Middle Income, and Low Income Countries. For measures of governance, we use the World Bank’s Governance Indicators dataset which includes six measures of governance. We find that pre- and post-crisis, the ranking of each income group has not changed except for year 2004 when the High-Income Non-OECD Countries surpassed the High-Income OECD Countries in “Political Stability and Absence of Violence” category. In other words, our results show that, other than that exception in 2004, both pre- and post-crisis, the High-Income OECD Countries had the best governance measures, the High-Income Non-OECD Countries had the second best measures, and so on, in the order shown above. One point to note here: The High-Income Non- OECD Countries performed much better than the other groups after year 1998. After 1998, this group improved in all six dimensions of governance. We conclude that although crises affect all income groups, because of certain characteristics of the High-Income Non-OECD group, they tend to better react to crises.

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