scholarly journals Wartime Commercial Policy and Trade between Enemies

2021 ◽  
Vol 46 (1) ◽  
pp. 9-52
Author(s):  
Mariya Grinberg
Keyword(s):  
World War I ◽  
Domestic Economy ◽  
Policy Decisions ◽  
World War ◽  
Commercial Policy ◽  
Military Capability ◽  
Long Time ◽  
Conversion Time

Abstract Why do states trade with their enemies during war? States make deliberate choices when setting their wartime commercial policies, and tailoring policies to match the type of war the states are expecting to fight. Specifically, states seek to balance two goals–maximizing revenue from continued trade during the war and minimizing the ability of the opponent to benefit militarily from trade. As a result, states trade with the enemy in (1) products that their opponents take a long time to convert into military capability, and (2) products that are essential to the domestic economy. Furthermore, states revise their wartime commercial policies based on how well they are doing on the battlefield. An analysis of British wartime commercial policy in World War I finds that a product's conversion time into military capabilities determines if and when that product will be prohibited from trade during the war. Alternatively, domestic political pressures play only a marginal role in wartime commercial policy decisions.

scholarly journals The Foreign Affairs of a State is Based on Its Strength in the International System

2017 ◽  
Vol 10 (2) ◽  
pp. 322
Author(s):  
Burim Mexhuani
Keyword(s):  
World War Ii ◽  
World War I ◽  
International Relations ◽  
International System ◽  
Foreign Affairs ◽  
World War ◽  
World Government ◽  
Theory Versus ◽  
Long Time ◽  
Legal Policies

Neorealists say that a country's Foreign Affairs is based on its power or position as the power that has a state in the international system. Field of International Relations based on international legal policies and norms; It can be defined by different political perspectives and phenomena, depending on certain theories. Theories are the best determinant of defining policies in the International System. For a long time, in the international system have dominated realistic, liberal and radical theories; After the Second World War for the purposes of explaining or defining international policies, other theories, including neo-realism, were listed. As a structured theory versus reality that defined the theory of alignment for defining political theories in the international system. In International Relations there is no central authority or world government, the state and the international environment is in a state of anarchy, which pushes the states to create the conditions to create an environment where they can survive. Special studies of International Relations theory were spurred especially after World War I and World War II. The neorealistic theory itself contains some elements that differ from other theories and that as its base takes the strength or position of power of states in the international system. Responses to the framework of action, the theories are directed as perimeters to solve the problems of the international system. The international relations system may be positioned in other circumstances when a power is not balanced, depending on the different circumstances of politics and politicians

Fifty Troubled Years: The Story of the Burgenland

1972 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
pp. 59-79
Author(s):  
Karl R. Stadler
Keyword(s):  
World War Ii ◽  
World War I ◽  
Natural Capital ◽  
The Political ◽  
Actual Situation ◽  
Military Operations ◽  
Policy Decisions ◽  
World War ◽  
The People ◽  
German Speaking

Most Austrians believe that in making countless policy decisions relating to Austria after World War I the Allies only twice demonstrated an awareness of the actual situation in Austria and took into account the wishes of the people: (1) when they determined to subject the conflicting claims to the Klagenfurt Basin to the test of a plebiscite; and (2) when they transferred the German-speaking areas of West Hungary to Austria without a plebiscite. However, although the creation of the Burgenland was commemorated in 1971 at numerous semicentennial celebrations in all parts of the country, the official speeches stressing the progress and the achievements of Austria's youngest province, no matter how tactful they were, could not entirely blot out memories of the bitter and bloody struggles of fifty years ago. The refusal of Hungary in her hour of humiliation to give up another piece of national territory; the political intrigues and military operations around the disputed borders; the fraudulent plebiscite in Ödenburg, as a result of which the new province lost its natural capital; and the Hungarian government's diplomatic efforts almost up to the outbreak of World War II to undo the Treaties of St. Germain and Trianon are all too much a part of Austrian history to be passed over in silence.

Maïscultuur in Nederland

2020 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
pp. 33-40
Author(s):  
BEN KOOIJ
Keyword(s):  
World War I ◽  
The Netherlands ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Small Scale ◽  
Sharp Change ◽  
World War ◽  
Livestock Farming ◽  
15Th Century ◽  
Maize Cultivation ◽  
Long Time

Maize cultivation in the Netherlands Columbus introduced maize in Spain at the end of the 15th century. At the end of 16th century, maize reached the Netherlands. However, the Dutch climate was not favorable enough to have the crop matured. Therefore, for a long time maize cultivation remained limited for study and observation. The Netherlands has not built up an old maize culture. On the other hand, Spanish and Portuguese farmers already cultivated plenty of maize in 1520. For the purpose of intensive livestock farming, the Netherlands started importing maize from America around 1850. After World War I, trade started again, but also research into the breeding of maize in order to make the Netherlands less dependent on foreign countries. After The Second World War, some farmers began to grow small-scale maize. However, it took until around 1975 before cultivation takes place on a large scale and a practical way of storage at farms has been developed. At present, maize cultivation is the largest crop in the Netherlands with over 216,000 hectares. This has led to a sharp change in the image of the historic arable landscape in 50 years.

Turing and the origins of digital computers

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Brian Randell
Keyword(s):  
World War I ◽  
Second World War ◽  
World War ◽  
General Belief ◽  
Alan Turing ◽  
Long Time ◽  
Intensive Investigation ◽  
The Uk ◽  
Second World

In this chapter I describe my initial attempts at investigating, during the early 1970s, what Alan Turing did during the Second World War. My investigations grew out of a study of the work of Charles Babbage’s earliest successors—in particular, the Irish pioneer Percy Ludgate—a study that led me to plan an overall historical account of the origins of the digital computer. The investigation resulted in my learning about a highly secret programmable electronic computer developed in Britain during the Second World War. I revealed that this computer was named Colossus, and had been built in 1943 for Bletchley Park, the UK government’s wartime codebreaking establishment. However, my attempt to get the details of the machine declassified were unsuccessful, and I came to the conclusion that it might be a long time before anything more would become public about Bletchley Park and Colossus. Around 1970, while I was seeking information about the work of Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace to use in my inaugural lecture at Newcastle University, I stumbled across the work of Percy Ludgate. In a paper he wrote about Babbage’s ‘automatic calculating engines’, Ludgate mentioned that he had also worked on the design of an Analytical Engine, indicating that he had described this in an earlier paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society.From a copy of that paper I learned that an apparently completely forgotten Irish inventor had taken up and developed Babbage’s ideas for what would now be called a program-controlled mechanical computer. Previously I had subscribed to the general belief that over a century had passed before anyone had followed up Babbage’s pioneering 1837 work on Analytical Engines. This discovery led me to undertake an intensive investigation of Ludgate, the results of which I published in the Computer Journal. With the help of a number of Irish librarians and archivists I managed to find out quite a few details about the tragically short life of this Irish accountant, and even to make contact with one of his relatives. Unfortunately, I found nothing more about his design for a paper-tapecontrolled analytical machine beyond what was given in his 1909 paper. My investigations into the background to Ludgate’s work left me with a considerable amount of information on pre-computer technology and on other little-known successors to Babbage.

The Vienna Psychoanalytic Polyclinic (‘Ambulatorium’): Wilhelm Reich and the Technical Seminar

2002 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 67-84 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christine Diercks
Keyword(s):  
World War Ii ◽  
World War I ◽  
Social Experiment ◽  
World War ◽  
Technical Application ◽  
The Unconscious ◽  
The Public ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
Wilhelm Reich ◽  
Long Time

The beginnings of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Outpatient Clinic were paralleled by a revival of the psychoanalytical movement and the institutionalization of psychoanalysis, that had been interrupted by World War I. In this period of renovation, the institution founded in 1922 was – as a social experiment of the psychoanalysts of the ‘Red Vienna’ – the first clinic that made psychotherapeutic help accessible to a wider population. At the same time it contributed to establishing psychoanalysis as a method of treatment. Within the psychoanalytical society, the Clinic acted as a forum for training and clinical discussion. The concepts of transference and resistance had been discovered and theoretically substantiated. But the technical application still caused considerable problems. In this situation Wilhelm Reich initiated a technical seminar within the Clinic, from which a whole generation of analysts benefited greatly as regards the understanding of psychoanalytical processes and the analysis of transference. From a starting point of focusing on the unconscious meaning of neurotic symptoms, the organization of the entire personality with its complex defence dynamics in character-neuroses and the awareness of the negative transference, in particular, gradually became the centre of attention. After World War II a long time passed until the Clinic was reopened in 1999. Although conditions had, of course, changed, the motives were still similar: the necessity to create a clinical institution that represents psychoanalysis in the public in a competent way, the need for an adequate institutional framework to meet the challenges of the analyses of borderline cases and, last but not least, the need to deepen our knowledge and experience.

Britain's paradox: cooperation or punishment prior to World War I

2001 ◽  
Vol 27 (2) ◽  
pp. 169-186 ◽  
Author(s):  
STEVEN E. LOBELL
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Foreign Policy ◽  
World War I ◽  
The United States ◽  
Regional Governance ◽  
World War ◽  
Commercial Policy ◽  
Policy Adjustment ◽  
Domestic Constraints

In the three decades prior to World War I, Britain's paradox was whether to cooperate with or punish an emerging Germany, Japan, France, Russia, and the United States. Based on the need for economy, successive Chancellors of the Exchequer pressed for cooperating with the contenders. Members of the services and Conservatives pushed to punish these contenders, countering that Britain could afford the rising naval expenditure needed to implement such a programme. The existing literature emphasizes the role of geopolitics, domestic constraints, and individual idiosyncrasies to explain Britain's foreign policy adjustment. I argue that the nature of the foreign commercial policy of the contenders guided Britain's response. Due to the special affinity among commercially liberal states, Britain cooperated with America and Japan, ceding regional governance to both aspiring regional hegemons. Britain did, however, punish non-liberal France, Germany, and Russia by implementing new naval construction programmes and concentrating freed-up military resources until these countries capitulated in their naval challenge.

scholarly journals Iparosodás agrártérségben

2012 ◽  
Vol 7 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 91-98
Author(s):  
Zoltán Kaposi
Keyword(s):  
World War I ◽  
Plant Traits ◽  
World War ◽  
Small Plant ◽  
The Third ◽  
First Case ◽  
The World ◽  
Long Time ◽  
The Creation ◽  
The Town

This study deals with the industrialisation of the largest market centre of the Southwest Transdanubian Region of Hungary. Nagykanizsa was an agrarian town for a long time; however, a quick increase in trade begun from the 1830s. The industry showed small plant traits. The industrialisation started in the 1880s in this region too. Newness was the mass producing mechanised manufacturing. The manufacturing came into existence in three ways. The first case was when the already existing small plants were developed to factories due to the good trading opportunities. In the second case traders and craftsmen established businesses based on local innovations; therefore, new industries were acclimatised. And the third case was the creation of corporations which presumed large amount of capital. Due to the development, the industry became the most important sector in the structure of the economy of the town before the World War I.

scholarly journals A transnational history of the World War I in Jay Winter’s research

2020 ◽  
pp. 93-101
Author(s):  
Nikolai V. Hlibischuk
Keyword(s):  
World War I ◽  
Transnational History ◽  
National Narrative ◽  
World War ◽  
Global Context ◽  
Research Perspectives ◽  
The World ◽  
Long Time ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Great War

Based on the example of the scientific research of the famous american historian Jay Winter, the transnational approach and its advantages in the study of the World War I were analyzed in the article. The attention is paid to the characteristics of this method and its features. According to Jay Winter, transnational dimension of the Great War of 1914–1918 allows to go beyond the narrow national narrative and look at it from the new position, the questions which were studied a long time ago can be inserted in the broad global context and to rethink the meaning and consequences of this global conflict. The author also tried to outline the research perspectives and opportunities which are open in applying this approach.

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