The detailed descriptions of the physical geography in the previous chapters show the rich geodiversity of north-western Europe, reflected in its many geological landscapes (landscapes without the biological and cultural ‘furnishing’). The various geological forces, acting in time and space have created the foundation for this richness. The landscape’s framework has mainly been designed by such endogenic processes as tectonics, orogenesis, and volcanism, while its details have been sculptured by such exogenic processes as weathering, gravity, and glacial-, fluvial-, aeolian-, and marine activities. These modelling processes resulted in a very diverse geology, geomorphology, and pedology. The long scientific tradition and the rich geodiversity made north-western Europe one of the classical areas for geological research. It therefore includes many of the international case studies in earth sciences and became the cradle of numerous international reference localities such as Emsian (Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany), Dinantian (Ardennes, Belgium), Aptian (Provence, France), Danian—Dane is Latin for Denmark (Stevens Klint), Tiglian (Middle Limburg, The Netherlands), Eemian (river in western Netherlands), etc. The chronological division of glacial and fluvioglacial features is primarily based on type localities (villages, rivers, etc.) in Denmark, northern and southern Germany, and The Netherlands. Moreover, a multitude of Tertiary and Pre-Tertiary stages of the standard geological timetable have been named after type localities of geological and prehistoric sites in France. Geological landscapes such as the Maare system of the Eifel, the volcanoes on the Massif Central (France), the Saalian and Weichselian ice-pushed ridges of Germany, The Netherlands, and Denmark as well as the impressive dunes along the coast from France to the northernmost tip of Denmark have been subjects of detailed research. These geological landscapes form a unique geological patchwork. The activities of humans, especially in the last century, have damaged or destroyed many of these landscapes and sites of geological interest. However, selected sites and areas representing the geogenesis of the earth should be preserved for the benefit of science, education, and human welfare. In all European countries attention is given to landscape preservation; however, policy and practice have mainly been based on specific biological, historical-cultural, and visual landscape qualities.
Securitization, Islamic chaplaincy, and the issue of (de)radicalization of Muslim detainees in Dutch prisons