scholarly journals Zur morphembezogenen Überformung der deutschen Orthographie

2013 ◽  
Vol 25 (4) ◽  
Author(s):  
Nikolaus Ruge
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
Invisible Hand ◽  
Writing Systems ◽  
13Th Century ◽  
General Law ◽  
12Th Century ◽  
Explicit Mention ◽  
History Of ◽  
Prescriptive Grammar

Morphematic reorientation of German orthography takes place in conformity with a general law in the history of writing. Alphabetic writing systems, being necessarily phonographic, tend to develop towards the encoding of non-phonetic units. The emergence of morphematic elements in German is preceeded by the evolution of word-separation by regular spaces which had been adopted throughout Europe by the end of the 13th century. Based on a corpus containing 157 High German texts (late 15th to late 18th centuries), this paper will demonstrate that morphematic reorientation of German orthography can be explained neither as an invisible-hand-process nor as the outcome of prescriptive grammar, but as the result of interaction between orthograpic norm and usage. Three cases will be considered in detail: (1) Graphic assimilation of allomorphic plosive variation emerges as early as the 12th century, reflecting regional final devoicing. By the early 17th century, the rule governing orthographic reprensentation of final devoicing in present-day German is fully adopted in usage. Its morphematic reinterpretation does not follow before the end of the 17th century. (2) Morphematic graphic representation of [a]-Umlaut emerges during the 14th century in Upper Germany as a phonetic reflex of open [e]. It is recommended by Middle German grammarians since the 1560s, with explicit mention of morphological factors. Around 1700 the writing rule imposes itself in usage. (3) The use of double consonant letters occuring in final positions of 'graphic' syllables ( according to ) rests inhibited until the 18th century, in particular to prevent tri- or tessaragraphs (, ). It is the influence of Adelung's grammar which leads to the final adaption of the present-day rule.

Reflections on the history of dependency notions in linguistics

1990 ◽  
Vol 17 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 29-47 ◽  
Author(s):  
W. Keith Percival
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Early Modern Period ◽  
13Th Century ◽  
Phrase Structure Grammar ◽  
Parts Of Speech ◽  
12Th Century ◽  
Verbal Predicate ◽  
Subject Noun ◽  
History Of ◽  
Syntactic Dependency

Summary This paper outlines the history of dependency notions from Antiquity to the present century. Although the notion of syntactic dependency was unknown in Antiquity, the idea of semantic dependency was foreshadowed in early definitions of the minor parts of speech, i.e., parts of speech other than the noun and the verb. In part, this happened because logicians had originally posited only the two major parts of speech, and grammarians then formulated their definitions of the minor parts of speech in relation to those of the noun and the verb. The adverb, for instance, was defined as augmenting or diminishing the meaning of the verb. The first writer who used (if not coined) a special term to refer to the notion that some words specify or ‘determine’ the meanings of the subject noun and the verbal predicate was Boethius (ca. 500 A.D.), and in this way the notion of ‘determination’ was launched. As a result of the subsequent popularity of Boethius’s logical works, ‘determination’ was adopted and extensively utilized by Latin grammarians from the 12th century on. In the 13th century, it was complemented by the term ‘dependency’, which was the logical converse of ‘determination’. Grammarians claimed that a dependency relation exists between the members of all constructions. The vogue of ‘dependency’ declined even before the advent of Renaissance humanism, while ‘determination’ survived. In the early modern period, the terminological repertory expanded. Thus, in the 18th century, French grammarians coined the terms ‘modification’ (Buffier) and ‘complement’ (Du Marsais). The 20th century has been marked by a further increase of new terms. Inspired by Tesnière’s posthumous Elèments de syntaxe structurale (1959), some linguists have also proposed formalized dependency theories as alternatives to phrase-structure grammar.

scholarly journals The identities of the Catholic communities in the 18th century Wallachia

2017 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
pp. 71-82
Author(s):  
Alexandru Ciocîltan
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Mother Tongue ◽  
Distinct Group ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
Ethnic Origin ◽  
Capital City ◽  
13Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
Medieval Heresy ◽  
North Western

The Catholic communities in the 18th century Wallachia although belonging to the same denomination are diverse by language, ethnic origin and historical evolution. The oldest community was founded in Câmpulung in the second half of the 13th century by Transylvanian Saxons. At the beginning of the 17th century the Saxons lost their mother tongue and adopted the Romanian as colloquial language. Other communities were founded by Catholic Bulgarians who crossed the Danube in 1688, after the defeat of their rebellion by the Ottomans. The refugees came from four market-towns of north-western Bulgaria: Čiprovci, Kopilovci, Železna and Klisura. The Paulicians, a distinct group of Catholics from Bulgaria, settled north of the Danube during the 17th and 18th centuries. The homeland of this group was the Nikopolis region. Their ancestors, adherents of a medieval heresy, had been converted by Franciscans friars. Bucharest, the capital city of Wallachia, housed a composite Catholic community of distinct origins, which came into being during the last quarter of the 17th century. In this community the Catholic Armenians became predominant by the mid-18th century. The main object of our study is the history of the Catholic communities in a predominant Orthodox country under Ottoman rule.

scholarly journals ARCHAEOLOGY ABOUT THE 17th CENTURY PALACE IN KOLOMENSKOYE: OVERVIEW OF DATA SOURCES

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Л.А. Беляев ◽  
С.И. Баранова
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
Data Sources ◽  
Subsequent Period ◽  
The Future ◽  
Archaeological Materials ◽  
History Of ◽  
Future Task ◽  
Clear Idea

Задача статьи – понять, где, сколько и каких сохранилось археологических материалов по истории наиболее известного из гражданских дворцовых соо­ружений, срубленных из дерева, – дворца в Коломенском. Дворец использовался как летняя государственная резиденция в основном царем Алексеем Михайловичем и его сыновьями, Федором и Петром I (в юности), а позже эпизодически правительницами России XVIII в. После разборки в 1760-х гг. от него сохранились описания, обмеры и даже модели. За столетие (с 1920-х гг.) остатки усадьбы не раз исследовались археологически, материалы фиксации отложились в ряде архивов и музеев, в основном московских. На будущее ставится задача свести эти материалы воедино и заново проанализировать их вместе с другими видами источников. The paper is aimed at shaping a clear idea on what, where, and how much of archaeological materials on the history of the Kolomenskoye Palace, which is the most famous civil palace construction made from logs, has been preserved. The palace was used as a summer state residence, mostly, by tsar Aleksey Mikhailovich and his sons – Fyodor and Peter I (in his childhood), and in the subsequent period in the 18th century from time to time by female rulers of Russia. In the 1760s the palace was dismantled; its descriptions, measurements and even models were preserved. Over a hundred years (since the 1920s), the remains of this estate have been repeatedly excavated, and the records have been stored in a number of archives and museums, mostly, in Moscow. The future task is to consolidate these materials and analyze them along with other types of sources.

scholarly journals The “Slavic-Russian Nation” in the Historical Literature of Ukraine and Russia from the 1600s to the mid-1700s

Slovene ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 9 (2) ◽  
pp. 417-447
Author(s):  
Petr S. Stefanovich
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
The Political ◽  
Russian History ◽  
Slavonic Language ◽  
Imperial Identity ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Common ◽  
The Church ◽  
Century Literature

The article analyzes the history of the concept of a “Slavic-Russian nation”. The concept was first used by Zacharia Kopystenskij in 1624, but its wide occurrence starts in 1674, when Synopsis, the first printed history of Russia, was published in Kiev. In the book, “Slavic-Russian nation” refers to an ancient Slavic people, which preceded the “Russian nation” (“rossiyskiy narod”) of the time in which the book was written. Uniting “Slavs” and “Russians” (“rossy”) into one “Slavic-Russian nation”, the author of Synopsis followed the idea which was proposed but not specifically defined by M. Stryjkovskij in his Chronicle (1582) and, later, by the Kievan intellectuals of the 1620s–30s. The construction of Synopsis was to prove that “Russians” (“rossy”) were united by both the common Slavic origin and the Church Slavonic language used by the Orthodox Slavic peoples. According to Synopsis, they were also supposed to be united by the Muscovite tsar’s authority and the Orthodox religion. The whole conception made Synopsis very popular in Russia in the late 17th century and later. Earlier in the 17th-century literature of the Muscovite State, some authors also proposed ethno-genetic constructions based on Stryjkovskij’s Chronicle and other Renaissance historiography. Independently from the Kievan literature, the word “Slavic-Russian” was invented (first appearance in the Legend about Sloven and Rus, 1630s). Both the Kievan and Muscovite constructions of a mythical “Slavic-Russian nation” aimed at making an “imagined” ethno-cultural nation. They contributed to forming a new Russian imperial identity in the Petrine epoch. However, the concept of a “Slavic-Russian nation” was not in demand in the political discourse of the Petrine Empire. It was sporadically used in the historical works of the 18th century (largely due to the influence of Synopsis), but played no significant role in the proposed interpretations of Russian history.

The first Russian dictionaries

2021 ◽  
pp. 36-43
Author(s):  
Н.Е. Касьяненко
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Alphabetical Order ◽  
14Th Century ◽  
15Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Subject

Статья посвящена истории развития словарного дела на Руси и появлению первых словарей. Затрагиваются первые, несловарные формы описания лексики в письменных памятниках XI–XVII вв. (глоссы), из которых черпался материал для собственно словарей. Анализируются основные лексикографические жанры этого времени и сложение на их основе азбуковников. В статье уделено внимание таким конкретным лексикографическим произведениям, как ономастикону «Рѣчь жидовскаго «зыка» (XVIII в.), словарям-символикам «Толк о неразумнех словесех» (XV в.) и «Се же приточне речеся», произвольнику, объясняющему славянские слова, «Тлъкование нεоудобь познаваεмомъ въ писаныхъ рѣчемь» (XIV в.), разговорнику «Рѣчь тонкословія греческаго» (ХV в.). Характеризуется словарь Максима Грека «Толкованіе именамъ по алфавиту» (XVI в.). Предметом более подробного освещения стал «Лексис…» Л. Зизания – первый печатный словарь на Руси. На примерах дается анализ его реестровой и переводной частей. Рассматривается известнейший труд П. Берынды «Лексикон славеноросский и имен толкование», а также рукописный «Лексикон латинский…» Е. Славинецкого, являющий собой образец переводного словаря XVII в. The article is dedicated to the history of the development of vocabulary in Russia and the emergence of the first dictionaries. The first, non-verbar forms of description of vocabulary in written monuments of the 11th and 17th centuries (glosses), from which material for the dictionaries themselves were drawn, are affected. The main lexicographical genres of this time are analyzed and the addition of alphabets on their basis. The article focuses on specific lexicographical works such as the «Zhidovskago» (18th century) the dictionaries-symbols of «The Talk of Unreasonable Words» (the 15th century). and «The Same Speech», an arbitrary explanation of slavic words, «The tlution of the cognition in the written», (the 14th century), the phrasebook «Ry subtle Greek» (the 15th century). Maxim Greck's dictionary «Tolkien names in alphabetical order» (16th century) is characterized. The subject of more detailed coverage was «Lexis...» L. Sizania is the first printed dictionary in Russia. Examples give analysis of its registry and translation parts. The famous work of P. Berynda «Lexicon of Slavic and Names of Interpretation» and the handwritten «Lexicon Latin...» are considered. E. Slavinecki, which is a model of the 17th century translated dictionary.

A New Handwritten Dictionary of the Komi-Zyryan Language in the History of Komi Lexicography

2021 ◽  
pp. 87-104
Author(s):  
Galina V. Fedyuneva ◽  
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Native Speakers ◽  
Native Speaker ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
Historical Interpretation ◽  
Old Russian ◽  
History Of ◽  
Lexical Composition ◽  
Russian Dictionary

The article presents an analysis of the lexical composition of the newly discovered Zyryan-Russian dictionary of the 17th century and clarifies its place in the history of Komi lexicography. The article solves the problems of classification of lexicographic monuments and systematization of approaches to their description, and reveals gaps in research that has not been conducted since the mid-20th century. The currently known lexicographic monuments of the Komi language are limited to the dictionary materials of D.G. Messerschmidt, F.I. Stralenberg, G.F. Miller, P.S. Pallas and I.I. Lepekhin; the materials were collected during their expeditions in the 1720s–1770s. Unlike the church monuments of the Old Komi language of the 14th–17th and 18th centuries, the materials have not yet received a thorough archaeographic description, textual analysis and cultural and historical interpretation. The new Zyryan-Russian dictionary, discovered as part of the manuscript collection of the monk Prokhor Kolomnyatin and accurately dated (1668), is the earliest monument in the history of Komi lexicography today. The dictionary is interesting because it belongs to the period almost undocumented by written evidence and differs from all existing monuments in its dialect basis. The article describes the structure of the dictionary, thoroughly analyzes the lexical composition and presents most of its content, and reveals parallels with the dictionary materials of other monuments. The Russian-Komi dictionary-phrasebook that I.I. Lepekhin found and published in his Diary Notes is considered in more detail. Later V.I. Lytkin reprinted and deciphered the phrasebook, as well as made commentaries on it in his Old Permic Language (1952); thus, it became an auxiliary material for the reconstruction of the Old Komi language of the 14th–17th centuries. The dictionary dates back to the 18th century, although it has not been subjected to serious cultural-historical and chronological attribution. The newly discovered monument, unlike Lepekhin’s dictionary created by the type of translated old Russian dictionaries-phrasebooks based on the Russian questionnaire, reflects the live Komi-Zyryan language of the second half of the 17th century. It does not contain typical phrases, phrases from dialogues and connected texts that are typical of translated phrasebooks. There is only a certain tendency towards a thematic presentation of the material, although not always consistent. Like the dictionary materials contained in the draft papers of Russian and foreign travellers of the 18th century, the vocabulary of the new dictionary was written by the author of the collection directly from the words of a native speaker (or native speakers) of the Komi language in order to fix it and, apparently, was not intended for communicative use. Unlike the existing dictionary materials, which often contain short lists of Komi numerals, the new dictionary contains a consistent detailed money vocabulary list, from “denga” to “thousand rubles”. Numerical values are given in the Cyrillic numeral system using letters, which is undoubtedly of interest for ethnohistorical research and Russian paleography.

The History of Christian Missions to Africa

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Norman Etherington
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
French Revolution ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Sub Saharan Africa ◽  
Foreign Born ◽  
13Th Century ◽  
Christian Missions ◽  
Late 20Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
Sub Saharan

Christianity came very early to Africa, as attested by the Gospels. The agencies by which it spread across North Africa and into the Kingdom of Aksum remain largely unknown. Even after the rise of Islam cut communications between sub-Saharan Africa and the churches of Rome and Constantinople, it survived in the eastern Sudan kingdom of Nubia until the 15th century and never died in Ethiopia. The documentary history of organized missions begins with the Roman Catholic monastic orders founded in the 13th century. Their evangelical work in Africa was closely bound up with Portuguese colonialism, which both helped and hindered their operations. Organized European Protestant missions date from the 18th-century evangelical awakening and were much less creatures of states. Africa was a particular object of attention for Evangelicals opposed to slavery and the slave trade. Paradoxically this gave an impetus to colonizing ventures aimed at undercutting the moral and economic foundations of slavery in Africa. Disease proved to be a deadly obstacle to European- and American-born missionaries in tropical Africa, thus spurring projects for enrolling local agents who had acquired childhood immunity. Southern Africa below the Zambezi River attracted missionaries from many parts of Europe and North America because of the absence of the most fearsome diseases. However the turbulent politics of the region complicated their work by restricting their access to organized African kingdoms and chieftaincies. The prevalent mission model until the late 19th century was a station under the direction of a single European family whose religious and educational endeavors were directed at a small number of African residents. Catholic missions acquired new energy following the French Revolution, the old Portuguese system of partnership with the state was displaced by enthusiasm for independent operations under the authority of the Pope in Rome. Several new missionary orders were founded with a particular focus on Africa. Mission publications of the 19th and 20th centuries can convey a misleading impression that the key agents in the spread of African Christianity were foreign-born white males. Not only does this neglect the work of women as wives and teachers, but it diverts attention from the Africans who were everywhere the dominant force in the spread of modern Christianity. By the turn of the 20th century, evangelism had escaped the bounds of mission stations driven by African initiative and the appearance of so-called “faith missions” based on a model of itinerant preaching. African prophets and independent evangelists developed new forms of Christianity. Once dismissed as heretical or syncretic, they gradually came to be recognized as legitimate variants of the sort that have always accompanied the acculturation of religion in new environments. Decolonization caught most foreign mission operations unawares and required major changes, most notably in the recruitment of African clergy to the upper echelons of church hierarchies. By the late 20th century Africans emerged as an independent force in Christian missions, sending agents to other continents.

Climatic changes during the past two millennia along the Ancient Silk Road

2019 ◽  
Vol 44 (5) ◽  
pp. 605-623
Author(s):  
Zhixin Hao ◽  
Jingyun Zheng ◽  
Yingzhuo Yu ◽  
Danyang Xiong ◽  
Yang Liu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Roman Empire ◽  
Regional Differences ◽  
Silk Road ◽  
Ice Age ◽  
13Th Century ◽  
North Central ◽  
Social Events ◽  
12Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
Ancient Silk Road

The Ancient Silk Road has a history of more than 2000 years and gave birth to the diversities of culture between East and West. Climate change may have played a crucial role in this process and in the flourishing and decline of civilizations. In this work, high-resolution temperature reconstructions covering more than 1000 years along the Ancient Silk Road are reviewed, and the main characteristics of temperature and hydroclimatic changes are summarized. Four warm stages occurred that included the 1st–3rd centuries, the late 7th century to the early 11th century, the mid-12th century to the mid-13th century, and since the 20th century, and three cold stages, including the 4th century to the early 7th century, the middle of the 11th century to the early 12th century, and the end of the 13th century to the mid-19th century, occurred. Within these various stages, regional differences existed in amplitudes and starting–ending years of the cold/warm phases. Wetness and dryness variabilities during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) were greater than during the Little Ice Age in Northwestern China. The climate was dry during the MCA in Central Asia, South Scandinavia, and North-central Europe. In addition, the climate backgrounds of several famous kingdoms flowering and social events that flourished during these times, such as the Roman Empire, the Loulan Kingdom, the Tibetan Kingdom, and the three unprecedented Mongol westward conquests, are discussed.

scholarly journals Stolen wealth, perpetrators and punishments in Moldova (17th century – early 18th century)

2020 ◽  
Vol 26 ◽  
pp. 105-129
Author(s):  
Cătălina Chelcu
Keyword(s):  
Justice System ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
Historical Period ◽  
Social Categories ◽  
Documentary Sources ◽  
The Social ◽  
History Of ◽  
Blood Money ◽  
Early 18Th Century

For the historical period we refer to, no proper inventories have been made containing the unjustly appropriated goods. They are just mentioned as such or listed, if that was the case, according to the size of the damage. There are also documentary sources in which the object of the theft is less represented, the justice system focusing in those cases rather on the wrongdoers, than on the wrong actions. That is why, the blood money “paid for some reason”, with no other specific details, is quite frequently cited. Rare or frequent, these documents are complaints addressed by the victim to the Prince and his officials, documents in which the perpetrators admitted their fault, or deeds issued by the judicial authority subsequent to the investigation of the criminal act. In discussing the theft of/from the wealth, i.e. from the whole amount of the available goods, we are interested in clarifying some aspects pertaining to a reality that the historian should reconstruct, with all the complexity of its evolution: the motivations of the theft and its circumstances, the types of theft, the social categories involved, the time and space of the misdemeanour, the perpetrators’ punishment. Briefly, the study is about starting to write a history of the reprehensible acts liable to punishments for theft and robbery in 17th and early 18th century Moldavia.

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