Sanskritization in Pāli

2021 ◽  
Vol 0 (0) ◽  
Author(s):  
Bryan G. Levman
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Evolutionary Process ◽  
Early Language ◽  
Phonological Constraints ◽  
Dialect Variation ◽  
Major Factors ◽  
The Buddha ◽  
Over Time

Abstract This article continues the discussion on the nature of the early language of Buddhism and the language that the Buddha spoke, arguing that the received Pāli transmission evolved out of an earlier Middle Indic idiom, which is identified as a koine. Evidence for this koine can be found by examining correspondence sets within Pāli and its various varieties and by examining parallel, cognate correspondence sets between Pāli and other Prakrits which have survived. This article compares 30 correspondence sets transmitted in the Dhammapada recensions: the Gāndhārī Prakrit verses, the partially Sanskritized Pāli and Patna Dhammapada Prakrit verses, and the fully Sanskritized verses of the Udānavarga. By comparing cognate words, it demonstrates the existence of an underlying inter-language which in many cases can be shown to be the source of the phonological differences in the transmission. The paper includes a discussion on the two major factors of dialect change, evolution with variation over time, and the diffusionary, synchronic influence of dialect variation; it concludes that both are important, with dialect variation – and the phonological constraints of indigenous speakers who adopted MI as a second language – providing the pathways on which the natural evolutionary process was channeled.

scholarly journals What is special about L3 processing?

2013 ◽  
Vol 18 (2) ◽  
pp. 130-144 ◽  
Author(s):  
KEES DE BOT ◽  
CAROL JAENSCH
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Language Processing ◽  
Language Use ◽  
Fundamental Question ◽  
Third Language ◽  
The Core ◽  
Dynamic Perspective ◽  
Core Issue ◽  
The Brain ◽  
Over Time

While research on third language (L3) and multilingualism has recently shown remarkable growth, the fundamental question of what makes trilingualism special compared to bilingualism, and indeed monolingualism, continues to be evaded. In this contribution we consider whether there is such a thing as a true monolingual, and if there is a difference between dialects, styles, registers and languages. While linguistic and psycholinguistic studies suggest differences in the processing of a third, compared to the first or second language, neurolinguistic research has shown that generally the same areas of the brain are activated during language use in proficient multilinguals. It is concluded that while from traditional linguistic and psycholinguistic perspectives there are grounds to differentiate monolingual, bilingual and multilingual processing, a more dynamic perspective on language processing in which development over time is the core issue, leads to a questioning of the notion of languages as separate entities in the brain.

Parameters or cues?

2004 ◽  
Vol 7 (1) ◽  
pp. 35-36 ◽  
Author(s):  
BRIAN MACWHINNEY
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Acquisition ◽  
Hebbian Learning ◽  
Universal Grammar ◽  
Back Propagation ◽  
Parameter Setting ◽  
Functional Categories ◽  
The Core ◽  
Over Time

Truscott and Sharwood Smith (henceforth T&SS) attempt to show how second language acquisition can occur without any learning. In their APT model, change depends only on the tuning of innate principles through the normal course of processing of L2. There are some features of their model that I find attractive. Specifically, their acceptance of the concepts of competition and activation strength brings them in line with standard processing accounts like the Competition Model (Bates and MacWhinney, 1982; MacWhinney, 1987, in press). At the same time, their reliance on parameters as the core constructs guiding learning leaves this model squarely within the framework of Chomsky's theory of Principles and Parameters (P&P). As such, it stipulates that the specific functional categories of Universal Grammar serve as the fundamental guide to both first and second language acquisition. Like other accounts in the P&P framework, this model attempts to view second language acquisition as involving no real learning beyond the deductive process of parameter-setting based on the detection of certain triggers. The specific innovation of the APT model is that changes in activation strength during processing function as the trigger to the setting of parameters. Unlike other P&P models, APT does not set parameters in an absolute fashion, allowing their activation weight to change by the processing of new input over time. The use of the concept of activation in APT is far more restricted than its use in connectionist models that allow for Hebbian learning, self-organizing features maps, or back-propagation.

scholarly journals Finding the key to successful L2 learning in groups and individuals

2017 ◽  
Vol 7 (1) ◽  
pp. 127-148 ◽  
Author(s):  
Wander Lowie ◽  
Marijn Van Dijk ◽  
Huiping Chan ◽  
Marjolijn Verspoor
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Individual Differences ◽  
Language Development ◽  
Language Learning ◽  
Second Language Learning ◽  
Large Body ◽  
Individual Characteristics ◽  
Learner Characteristics ◽  
Complex Dynamic ◽  
Over Time

A large body studies into individual differences in second language learning has shown that success in second language learning is strongly affected by a set of relevant learner characteristics ranging from the age of onset to motivation, aptitude, and personality. Most studies have concentrated on a limited number of learner characteristics and have argued for the relative importance of some of these factors. Clearly, some learners are more successful than others, and it is tempting to try to find the factor or combination of factors that can crack the code to success. However, isolating one or several global individual characteristics can only give a partial explanation of success in second language learning. The limitation of this approach is that it only reflects on rather general personality characteristics of learners at one point in time, while both language development and the factors affecting it are instances of complex dynamic processes that develop over time. Factors that have been labelled as “individual differences” as well as the development of proficiency are characterized by nonlinear relationships in the time domain, due to which the rate of success cannot be simply deduced from a combination of factors. Moreover, in complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) literature it has been argued that a generalization about the interaction of variables across individuals is not warranted when we acknowledge that language development is essentially an individual process (Molenaar, 2015). In this paper, the viability of these generalizations is investigated by exploring the L2 development over time for two identical twins in Taiwan who can be expected to be highly similar in all respects, from their environment to their level of English proficiency, to their exposure to English, and to their individual differences. In spite of the striking similarities between these learners, the development of their L2 English over time was very different. Developmental patterns for spoken and written language even showed opposite tendencies. These observations underline the individual nature of the process of second language development.

Part I Foundations, Ch.5 Evolution

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kenny Susan
Keyword(s):  
Evolutionary Process ◽  
Original Form ◽  
Constitutional Change ◽  
Written Text ◽  
Constitutional Evolution ◽  
Constitutional System ◽  
Changes Over Time ◽  
Over Time

This chapter is about Australian constitutional evolution. It concerns the meaning, the processes, and the possibilities of constitutional change in Australia. ‘Constitutional evolution’ here means the transformation of the Australian constitutional system from its original form in 1901 into different forms until it reached the form we know today, by an aggregation of changes over time. These changes have mostly occurred in the constitutional space for which the written Constitution originally provided, with the result that, from 1901 until now, the Constitution has provided the framework for the Australian federation. The Constitution, as enacted by the British Parliament and as formally amended by popular referenda, has been critical to this evolutionary process; but the changes in the constitutional system, though consistent with the written text, have not been required by it.

The Nationalism Debate: Past and Present

2017 ◽  
Vol 63 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Muchkund Dubey
Keyword(s):  
French Revolution ◽  
Evolutionary Process ◽  
Global Capitalism ◽  
Federal States ◽  
Independence Movement ◽  
Nation States ◽  
Indian Nationalism ◽  
The World ◽  
Interstate System ◽  
Major Factors

The nation states have emerged and been shaped through an evolutionary process. The major factors triggering their emergence have been rise of capitalism, breakdown of empires, independence of colonial territories and, in recent years, the disintegration of large federal states. The character and the authority of nation states have been shaped initially by the interstate system of the Treaty of Westphalia and largely by the French Revolution and the United Nations (UN) Charter, rise of regionalism and globalisation. Nationalism continues to thrive and remain dominant all over the world mainly because its possible substitutes such as global capitalism, socialist internationalism and UN multilateralism did not prove viable. The major challenges the nation states face today are coping with new problems arising within their territories and those which affect the very survival of mankind. The Indian nationalism embraces the entire variety of elements which go into the making of a nation state. It has been a subject of bitter controversy starting from India’s independence movement. To be true to its ethos reflected in the Indian Constitution, it must remain pluralistic, inclusive and humanitarian.

Understanding second language fluency behavior: The effects of individual differences in first language fluency, cross-linguistic differences, and proficiency over time

2016 ◽  
Vol 38 (4) ◽  
pp. 755-785 ◽  
Author(s):  
AMANDA HUENSCH ◽  
NICOLE TRACY-VENTURA
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Individual Differences ◽  
First Language ◽  
Oral Narrative ◽  
Language Fluency ◽  
Multiple Regressions ◽  
Linguistic Differences ◽  
Mitigating Factors ◽  
Before And After ◽  
Over Time

ABSTRACTThis study examined the extent to which first language (L1) fluency behavior, cross-linguistic differences, and proficiency can predict second language (L2) fluency behavior over time. English L1 Spanish (n= 24) and French (n= 25) majors completed a picture-based oral narrative in the L2 before and after 5 months residing abroad and later in the L1 after returning home. Data were coded for seven measures of speed, breakdown, and repair fluency. The results from multiple regressions indicated that L1 fluency behavior, cross-linguistic differences, and proficiency differentially contributed to explaining L2 fluency behavior prior to and during immersion. These findings suggest that when investigating L1–L2 fluency relationships considerations of mitigating factors such as cross-linguistic differences are necessary, and it is worthwhile to focus on how the contributions of these factors shift during development.

The evolution of business ethics in India

2014 ◽  
Vol 41 (11) ◽  
pp. 1073-1086 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ron Berger ◽  
Ram Herstein
Keyword(s):  
Business Ethics ◽  
Environmental Changes ◽  
Evolutionary Process ◽  
Business Culture ◽  
Conceptual Approach ◽  
Ethical Business ◽  
Holistic View ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Greco Roman ◽  
Over Time

Purpose – Religion and culture can influence ethical behavior in business. It is suggested that there has been and continues to be, a deep interrelationship between religion, business ethics, and economic activity in India. As India is becoming a major global economic business partner, understanding its unique ethical business infrastructure is gaining in importance. The purpose of this paper is to intend to further the understanding of Indian (“Vendantic”) business ethics, as opposed to Greco – Roman business ethics, as the foundation of business culture in India. This paper further elaborates on the evolution of business ethics and its implications on doing business in and with Indian companies. Design/methodology/approach – The authors undertook a conceptual approach in order to understand the evolutionary process of Indian business ethics in a holistic view in order to understand better its workings and effect on business interaction. Findings – The paper explains the constructs of business ethics in India and shows its evolution over time. Originality/value – This original theoretical paper examines the evolution of Indian business ethics over time in line with environmental changes in the Indian business landscape.

Uncertain Technology Evolution and Decision Making in Design

2012 ◽  
Vol 134 (10) ◽  
Author(s):  
Jonathan L. Arendt ◽  
Daniel A. McAdams ◽  
Richard J. Malak
Keyword(s):  
Research And Development ◽  
Pareto Frontier ◽  
Evolutionary Process ◽  
Evolutionary Model ◽  
Development Effort ◽  
Technology Evolution ◽  
Curve Model ◽  
S Curve ◽  
Over Time

The potential for engineering technology to evolve over time can be a critical consideration in design decisions that involve long-term commitments. Investments in manufacturing equipment, contractual relationships, and other factors can make it difficult for engineering firms to backtrack once they have chosen one technology over others. Although engineering technologies tend to improve in performance over time, competing technologies can evolve at different rates and details about how a technology might evolve are generally uncertain. In this article we present a general framework for modeling and making decisions about evolving technologies under uncertainty. In this research, the evolution of technology performance is modeled as an S-curve; the performance evolves slowly at first, quickly during heavy research and development effort, and slowly again as the performance approaches its limits. We extend the existing single-attribute S-curve model to the case of technologies with multiple performance attributes. By combining an S-curve evolutionary model for each attribute with a Pareto frontier representation of the optimal implementations of a technology at a particular point in time, we can project how the Pareto frontier will move over time as a technology evolves. Designer uncertainty about the precise shape of the S-curve model is considered through a Monte Carlo simulation of the evolutionary process. To demonstrate how designers can apply the framework, we consider the scenario of a green power generation company deciding between competing wind turbine technologies. Wind turbines, like many other technologies, are currently evolving as research and development efforts improve performance. The engineering example demonstrates how the multi-attribute technology evolution modeling technique provides designers with greater insight into critical uncertainties present in long-term decision problems.

scholarly journals Chunk use and development in advanced Chinese L2 learners of English

2016 ◽  
Vol 22 (2) ◽  
pp. 148-168 ◽  
Author(s):  
Junping Hou ◽  
Hanneke Loerts ◽  
Marjolijn H. Verspoor
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
First Language ◽  
Target Language ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Complexity Measures ◽  
Advanced Learners ◽  
English Classes ◽  
L2 Learners ◽  
Proficiency Scores ◽  
Over Time

The use of ‘chunks’ is not only a common and characteristic feature of first language use, but may also be a distinguishing factor between less and more proficient second language users. The present study aimed at investigating potential correlations between chunk use and holistically rated proficiency scores and development over time in advanced Chinese learners of English as a second language (L2) over the course of 18 months of English classes. Neither holistically rated proficiency scores nor common complexity measures had shown any progress in these learners, but a few lexically based measures did. Therefore, the development of chunks in these learners was examined as chunks are mostly lexical in nature and might show more subtle progress over time. The use of chunks was examined in the first and last two texts of the learners and, in line with previous research, it was found that more proficient writers use relatively more chunks, specifically collocations. Chunk coverage, the total number of chunk words divided by the total number of words, also correlated with some holistic proficiency scores, and increased significantly over time. Average chunk length did not show any correlation with proficiency scores nor did it increase over time. Increased proficiency in written texts is thus specifically related to the use of more chunks. This study shows that development in advanced Chinese L2 learners of English appears to be subtle, which might be due to the fact that at this advanced level mainly lexical changes take place. Future research into development over time in advanced learners may thus have to zoom in on lexical measures especially. Implications of this study point to the importance of promoting the use of target language chunks to advanced learners of English.

Sign in / Sign up

Export Citation Format

Share Document