Measuring Energy Availability and Energy Conservation in Endurance Athletes in the Pre-Race Period

Abstract Background: Low energy availability in male athletes has gained a lot of attention in the last years, but direct evidence of its effects on health and performance is lacking. Aim of this research was to objectively measure energy availability (EA) in healthy male endurance athletes without pre-existing relative energy deficiency signs during pre-race season. Methods: 12 trained endurance athletes (performance level 3, 4 and 5) participated in the cross-sectional controlled laboratory study. Fat free mass, exercise energy expenditure and energy intake were measured to calculate EA. Resting energy expenditure was measured and estimated to assess energy conservation. Three specific performance tests were used to assess endurance, agility and explosive strength performance. For psychological evaluation, the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire and a short Well-being questionnaire were completed.Results: Mean EA was 29.5 kcal/kg FFM/day. The majority (66.6%) had EA under the threshold for low EA in females. Critical cognitive restriction (≥13) was reported by 75% of participants. There were no differences in performance, blood values or psychological evaluation when subjects were divided into two groups divided by EA=30kcal/kg FFM/day. Cognitive restriction was negatively associated with measured resting energy expenditure and energy conservation (r=-.578, p=.025 and r=-.549, p=.032, respectively).Conclusions: The mean EA measured in this study supports the theory that the threshold for low EA in endurance male athletes might be under the threshold for females. In addition, we confirmed cognitive restriction could be useful for early detection of energy conservation. The high cognitive restriction as measured in our sample stressed the need of eating behavior screening in endurance athletes in order to reduce risk of any disordered eating patterns.

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Relationship between energy availability, energy conservation and cognitive restraint with performance measures in male endurance athletes

Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition ◽

10.1186/s12970-021-00419-3 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 18 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Iva Jurov ◽

Nicola Keay ◽

Vedran Hadžić ◽

Darjan Spudić ◽

Samo Rauter

Keyword(s):

Energy Expenditure ◽

Energy Conservation ◽

Resting Energy Expenditure ◽

Psychological Evaluation ◽

Endurance Athletes ◽

Energy Availability ◽

Male Athletes ◽

Cognitive Restraint ◽

Disordered Eating Patterns ◽

Resting Energy

Abstract Background Low energy availability in male athletes has gained a lot of attention in recent years, but direct evidence of its effects on health and performance is lacking. The aim of this research was to objectively measure energy availability (EA) in healthy male endurance athletes without pre-existing relative energy deficiency signs during pre-race season. Methods Twelve trained endurance athletes (performance level 3, 4, and 5) participated in the cross-sectional controlled laboratory study. Fat-free mass, exercise energy expenditure, and energy intake were measured to calculate EA. Resting energy expenditure was measured and estimated to assess energy conservation. Three specific performance tests were used to assess endurance, agility, and explosive strength performance. For psychological evaluation, the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire and a short Well-being questionnaire were completed. Results Mean EA was 29.5 kcal/kg FFM/day. The majority (66.6%) had EA under the threshold for low EA in females. Critical cognitive restraint (≥13) was reported by 75% of participants. There were no differences in performance, blood values, or psychological evaluation when subjects were divided into two groups divided by EA = 30 kcal/kg FFM/day. Cognitive restraint was negatively associated with measured resting energy expenditure and energy conservation (r = −.578, p = .025 and r = −.549, p = .032, respectively). Conclusions The mean EA measured in this study supports the theory that the threshold for low EA in endurance male athletes might be under the threshold for females. In addition, we confirmed cognitive restraint could be useful for early detection of energy conservation. The high cognitive restraint as measured in our sample stressed the need of eating behavior screening in endurance athletes in order to reduce risk of any disordered eating patterns.

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Inducing low energy availability in trained endurance male athletes results in poorer explosive power

European Journal of Applied Physiology ◽

10.1007/s00421-021-04857-4 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Iva Jurov ◽

Nicola Keay ◽

Darjan Spudić ◽

Samo Rauter

Keyword(s):

Energy Expenditure ◽

Resting Energy Expenditure ◽

Well Being ◽

Low Energy ◽

Endurance Athletes ◽

Energy Availability ◽

Explosive Power ◽

Cognitive Restriction ◽

Low Energy Availability ◽

Resting Energy

Abstract Purpose Low energy availability in males needs more original research to understand its health and performance consequences. The aim of the study was to induce low energy availability in previously healthy male endurance athletes by reducing energy availability by 25% for 14 consecutive days and measure any potential changes in performance, health, mental state or energy markers. Methods Energy availability was reduced in 12 trained, well-trained and elite endurance athletes by increasing energy expenditure and controlling energy intake. After intervention, health was assessed by blood draw, body composition was measured, energy markers by measuring resting energy expenditure, performance with three specific tests (measuring endurance, agility and explosive power) and two questionnaires were used for psychological assessment (the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire and Well-being questionnaire). Results Reduced energy availability (22.4 ± 6.3 kcal/kg FFM/day) caused significantly lower haemoglobin values (t(12) = 2.652, p = 0.022), there was a tendency for lower iron and IGF-1 (p = 0.066 and p = 0.077, respectively). Explosive power was reduced (t(12) = 4.570, p = 0.001), lactate metabolism was altered and athletes reported poorer well-being (t(12) = 2.385, p = 0.036). Cognitive restriction was correlated with energy availability (r = 0.528, p = 0.039). Conclusion This is the first research providing direct evidence that suboptimal energy availability negatively impacts explosive power before hormonal changes occur in male endurance athletes. It is also the first to show direct association of low energy availability and higher cognitive restriction. We also observed worse well-being and lower haemoglobin values. 25% of energy availability reduction as not enough to elicit changes in resting energy expenditure.

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Energy Availability in Male and Female Elite Wheelchair Athletes over Seven Consecutive Training Days

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu12113262 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (11) ◽

pp. 3262 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Thomas Egger ◽

Joelle Leonie Flueck

Keyword(s):

Energy Expenditure ◽

Energy Intake ◽

Female Athletes ◽

Resting Energy Expenditure ◽

Energy Availability ◽

Male Athletes ◽

Wheelchair Athletes ◽

Energy Needs ◽

Exercise Energy Expenditure ◽

And Training

Background: Low energy availability (LEA) is a major problem as athletes often restrict their energy intake. It has been shown that LEA occurs often in female and endurance athletes and in athletes from weight-sensitive or aesthetic sports. The purpose of this study was to investigate energy availability (EA) in elite wheelchair athletes. Methods: Fourteen elite wheelchair athletes (8 males; 6 females) participated. Data were collected using a weighed seven-day food and training diary to estimate energy intake and exercise energy expenditure. Resting energy expenditure and body composition were measured, whereas energy balance (EB) was calculated. Results: Measured over 7 days, EA was significantly different (36.1 ± 6.7 kcal kg−1 FFM day−1) in male compared to female (25.1 ± 7.1 kcal kg−1 FFM day−1) athletes (p < 0.001). From all analyzed days, LEA occurred in 73% of the days in female athletes and in 30% of the days in male athletes. EB was positive in male athletes (+169.1 ± 304.5 kcal) and negative (−288.9 ± 304.8 kcal) in female athletes. Conclusions: A higher prevalence of LEA was found in female compared to male athletes. A higher energy intake would be recommended to meet energy needs and to maximize training adaptation.

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Resting energy expenditure in male athletes with a spinal cord injury

Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine ◽

10.1080/10790268.2017.1317060 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 41 (2) ◽

pp. 208-215 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Fiona E. Pelly ◽

Elizabeth M. Broad ◽

Natalie Stuart ◽

Mark A. Holmes

Keyword(s):

Spinal Cord ◽

Spinal Cord Injury ◽

Energy Expenditure ◽

Resting Energy Expenditure ◽

Male Athletes ◽

Cord Injury ◽

Resting Energy

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257 Resting energy expenditure and body composition in male athletes with spinal cord injury and cerebral palsy: a pilot study

Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport ◽

10.1016/s1440-2440(07)70264-5 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 10 ◽

pp. 88

Keyword(s):

Spinal Cord ◽

Spinal Cord Injury ◽

Body Composition ◽

Cerebral Palsy ◽

Pilot Study ◽

Energy Expenditure ◽

Resting Energy Expenditure ◽

Male Athletes ◽

Cord Injury ◽

Resting Energy

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Current Predictive Resting Metabolic Rate Equations Are Not Sufficient to Determine Proper Resting Energy Expenditure in Olympic Young Adult National Team Athletes

Frontiers in Physiology ◽

10.3389/fphys.2021.625370 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 ◽

Author(s):

Aydın Balci ◽

Ebru Arslanoğlu Badem ◽

Ayfer Ezgi Yılmaz ◽

Aslı Devrim-Lanpir ◽

Bihter Akınoğlu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Energy Expenditure ◽

Metabolic Rate ◽

Female Athletes ◽

Resting Metabolic Rate ◽

Resting Energy Expenditure ◽

Mean Difference ◽

Fat Free Mass ◽

Male Athletes ◽

National Team ◽

Resting Energy

Predictive resting metabolic rate (RMR) equations are widely used to determine athletes’ resting energy expenditure (REE). However, it remains unclear whether these predictive RMR equations accurately predict REE in the athletic populations. The purpose of the study was to compare 12 prediction equations (Harris-Benedict, Mifflin, Schofield, Cunningham, Owen, Liu’s, De Lorenzo) with measured RMR in Turkish national team athletes and sedentary controls. A total of 97 participants, 49 athletes (24 females, 25 males), and 48 sedentary (28 females, 20 males), were recruited from Turkey National Olympic Teams at the Ministry of Youth and Sports. RMR was measured using a Fitmate GS (Cosmed, Italy). The results of each 12 prediction formulas were compared with the measured RMR using paired t-test. The Bland-Altman plot was performed to determine the mean bias and limits of agreement between measured and predicted RMRs. Stratification according to sex, the measured RMR was greater in athletes compared to controls. The closest equation to the RMR measured by Fitmate GS was the Harris-Benedict equation in male athletes (mean difference -8.9 (SD 257.5) kcal/day), and Liu’s equation [mean difference -16.7 (SD 195.0) kcal/day] in female athletes. However, the intra-class coefficient (ICC) results indicated that all equations, including Harris-Benedict for male athletes (ICC = 0.524) and Liu’s for female athletes (ICC = 0.575), had a moderate reliability compared to the measured RMR. In sedentary subjects, the closest equation to the measured RMR is the Nelson equation in males, with the lowest RMSE value of 118 kcal/day [mean difference: 10.1 (SD 117.2) kJ/day], whereas, in females, all equations differ significantly from the measured RMR. While Nelson (ICC = 0.790) had good and Owen (ICC = 0.722) and Mifflin (calculated using fat-free mass) (ICC = 0.700) had moderate reliability in males, all predictive equations showed poor reliability in females. The results indicate that the predictive RMR equations failed to accurately predict RMR levels in the participants. Therefore, it may not suitable to use them in determining total energy expenditure.

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